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	OF
COMPARATIVE	ZOOLOGY,
AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
The gift of
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TRANSACTION

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA,

FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. XI II.— NEW SERIES.

P U B L I S LI E D B Y T II B S O C I E T Y.

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1 8 6 9.

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COMMITTER OF PUBLICATION.

Me. T. P. James, Dr. Carson, Prof. C. B. Tamo, Mr. K. K. Price,

Mil. TlLGHMAN.

CONTENTS.

Extract from the Laws of the Society relating to the Transactions, ....

Officers of the Society for the year 1869,

List of the members of the Socioty elec!<"i since the publication of the Twelfth volume, List of the members reported deceased since the publication of the Twelfth volume,

1'AfiE

ii

v

vi

viii

PART I.

ARTICLE I. On California Mosses. By Leo Lesquereux, .

ARTICLE II. On the Mathematical Probability of Accidental Linguistic Resemblances. By Pliny Barle

Chase, A.M.,

ARTICLE III.

On the Comparative Etymology of tho Yoruba Language. By Pliny Earle Chase, A.M.,

ARTICLE IV.

Thoughts on the Influence of Ether on tho Solar System. By Alexander Wilcocks, M.D. (with a plate), ...............

25

35

73

ARTICLE V. On New Mosses. By Thomas P. James,

ARTICLE VI. On the Numerical Relations of Gravity and Magnetism. By Pliny Earle Chase, A.M.,

. 105

117

PART II.

AKTICLE VII. On tho Myriopoda of North America. By II. C. Wood, Jr., M.D. (with throe plates, I, II, III), 137

IV CONTENTS.

PART III.

AETICLE VIII.

On the Hydrology of the Basin of the River Saint Lawrence. By Thomas Evans Blackwell,

M. I. C. E. (with two plates, IV, V), 249

AETICLE IX.

Notes on a Map intended to Illustrate Five Types of Earth-surface in the United States, be- tween Cincinnati and the Atlantic. By J. P. Lesley (with a map, VI), .... 307

A UTICLE X. On Fucoides in the Coal Formations. By Leo Lcsquereux (with a plate, VII), . . . 313

ARTICLE XI.

Notes upon the Geology of some portions of Minnesota, from St. Paul to the Western Part of

the State. By James Hall, ............. 329

AETICLE XII.

A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Flora of the Coal Period in the United States. By

Horatio C. Wood, Jr., M.D. (with two plates, VIII, IX), 341

AETICLE XIII.

Synopsis of the Cyprinidas of Pennsylvania. By Prof. Edward D. Cope (with four plates, X,

XI, XII, XIII), : . . 351

Supplement on some New Species of American and African Fishes, ...... 400

ARTICLE XIV.

On Species of Forest Plants from the Tertiary of the State of Mississippi. By Leo Lcsquereux

(with ten plates, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII), . .411

AETICLE XV.

On the Phalangia and Pedipalpi collected by Professor Orton in Western South America, with

the Description of New African Species. By II. C. Wood, Jr., M.D. (with a plate, XXIV), 435

A kTICLE XVI.

Eemarks on Thirteen New Species of Crinoidea from the Palaeozoic Bocks of Indiana; Ken- tucky, and Ohio, and a Description of certain Peculiarities in the Structure of the Col- umns of Dolatocrinus, and their Attachment to the Body of the Animal. By Sidney S. Lyon (with two plates, XXV, XXVI), 443

O F F I C E R S

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

F O E THE YEAE 1 8 G 9.

Patron, . . President, ■

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Curators,

His Excellency, the Governor of Pennsylvania.

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r Franklin Peale,

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Treasurer, C1> ^'lcs B- Trego.

' Alfred L. Elwyn, Counsellors, elected for three years. In 1867, . J jj^ ^ £oateB

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In 18G8, .

In 18G9,

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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF TI1K

AM Ell I CAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

KLECTKD SINCE TIIK PUBLICATION OF THE TWELFTH

'II VOLUME.

J. E. Hilgard, Ass. U. 8. C. Sur., of Washington. Alphonse Count do Gasparin, of Paris.

Charles A. Schott, Ass. U.S.C.Sur., of Washington. Peter Tunner, Prof. School of Mines, ofLeoben.

Thomas E. Blackwoll, of Montreal. A. Thury, of Geneva.

Benjamin W. Eichardson, M.D., of London. A. Tholuck, Prof. Theol. Balle an dor Saale.

Thomas Hill, Pros. Harvard Coll., Cambridge. Carl Schinz, M.D., of .Strasbourg.

William P. Whitney, Prof. Yale Coll., Hew Haven. William Sellers, of Philadelphia.

Chester Dewey, Prof. Rochester University, N. Y. E. S. Smith, Pros. Girard College, Philadelphia.

William H.Green, Prof. Thco.Scm., Princeton, N.J. Alexander Wilcocks, M.D., of Philadelphia.

Hon. James Pollock, Direc. TJ.S, Mint, Philadelphia. Joseph Harrison, of Philadelphia.

E.A.Washburne, Rector of St. Mark's, Philadelphia. John Poster Kirke, of Massachusetts.

James McClune, Prof. Ast.C. High School, Phila. Geo.H. Cooke, Prof, of Geol.,K Brans wiek, N. J.

Calvin Pease, D.D., ol' Rochester.

John Biddle, of Philadelphia.

Henry Ilartshorne, M.D., of Philadelphia.

David E. Eschricht, M.D., of Copenhagen.

C. G. K David, M.D., of Copenhagen.

Frederick Keller, M.D., of Zurich.

Peter W. Sheafer, Geologist, of Pottsvillc, Pa.

A. Delesso, Prof. Ecole des Mines, Paris.

A. Daubree, of Paris.

R. M. S. Jackson, M.D., of Cresson, Pa.

R. A. F. Penrose, M.D., of Philadelphia.

Robert Briggs, of Philadelphia.

Joseph Lesley, of Philadelphia.

A. Morlot, ol* Lausanne.

Thomas C. Porter, Prof, of Theol., Lancaster, Pa. John Bost, Pasteur a Laforce, pros do Bergerao,

Prance. Charles T. Krauth, D.D., Prof. Theol. of Phila. R. H. Lamborn. Metallurgist, of Philadelphia. Ovid Brunet, Prof. Bot., Quebec. Goldwin Smith, of Oxford, England. Alex. Winchell, Prof. Geology, Michigan. William E. Whitman, of Philadelphia. ' George J. Brush, Prof. Chcm., JST. Haven, Conn. S. A. Allibone, of Philadelphia. S. A. Haven, of Worcester, Mass. C. D. Cleveland, of Philadelphia. James B. Francis, of Lowell, Mass.

ThomasChase, Prof. Nat. Hist. Haverford Coll., Pa, George C. Soh&ffer, of Washington, D. C. Benjamin V. Marsh, of Philadelphia. Timothy B. Conrad, of Philadelphia.

James T. Hodge, Geologist, of New York. Thomas S. Blair, of Pittsburgh, Pa.

George Kirchoff, Prof. Univ. Heidelberg. E. D. Cope, Prof. Nat. Hist., Haverford, Pa.

Franjois J. Pietet, Prof. Aead. of Geneva. Horatio C. Wood, Prof. N. JL, University of Pa.

Benjamin Studer, Prof. Univ. Borne. Gcorgo Davidson, U. S. Coast Survey.

LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.

VII

Charles Halo, U.S. Consul Gen. at Alexandria.

William Strong, .!. Sup. Court of Pennsylvania.

Pliny Barle, of Northampton.

Owen J. Wister, of German town, Pa.

Thomas Davidson, of Brighton, England.

Pridolin Sandberger, of Wurtzburg, Bavaria.

William P. Schimpor, of Strasbourg.

Robert J. Breekenridge, of Danville, Ky.

Jeffries Wyman, of Cambridge, Mass.

Jacob M. Da Costa, M.D., of Philadelphia.

Ralph Waldo Emerson, of Concord, Mass. •

Charles Sumner, of Boston, Mass.

John Cadwalader, of Philadelphia.

Harrison Allen, of Philadelphia.

Andrew Mason, of New York.

George F. Dunning, of New York.

15. F. Sbumard, of St. Louis, Mo.

J. S. Newberry, Columbia College, New York.

M. 15. Anderson, of Rochester, New York.

Henry Morion, of Philadelphia.

Charles J. Sfille, of Philadelphia.

J. H. Packard, of Philadelphia.

John P. Frazer, of Philadelphia,.

Henry S. Osborn, of Easton, Pa.

Hubert A. Newton, of New Haven, Conn.

Arnold Guyot,' of Princeton, N. J.

I*1. 15. Meek, Smithsonian Institution, I). C.

William P. Raynolds, (J. S. A.

Morion McMichael, of Philadelphia.

Theodore N. Gill, of Washington, I). C.

Nathaniel B. Browne, of Philadelphia.

John Welsh, of Philadelphia.

G. K. Warren, U. S. Engineers.

John Meredith Read, of Albany, N. Y.

J. Sergeant Price, of Philadelphia,

Ario Pardee, of Hazlcton, Pa.

John Stuart Mill, of London.

Henry C. Lea, of Philadelphia.

Samuel J. Gummere, of Eaverford College, Pa.

Joseph B. Townsend, of Montgomery Co., Pa.

Edward Shippen, of Philadelphia.

Frederick Graff, of Philadelphia.

Edward Rhoads, of Philadelphia.

Ulysses S. Grant, President of the United States.

John Tyndall, of London.

Charles E. Anthon, of Columbia College, N. Y.

O. C. Marsh, of Yale College, New Haven.

Traill Green, of Lafayette College, Easton.

William M. Canby, of Wilmington, Del.

George II. Home, of Philadelphia.

William M. Gabb, of Philadelphia,.

llakakian Bey, of Cairo.

Linant Bey, of Cairo.

Auguste Mariotto Bey, of Cairo.

Dr. Ceselli, of Rome.

Emmanuel l>e Rouge, of Paris.

Hcinrieh Brugsch, of Berlin.

.Johannes Dlimichen, of Paris.

Francois Ohabas, of Chalons sur S&one.

Samuel Birch, of London.

Edward Lartet, of Paris.

Joseph Prestwich, of London.

Carl L. Riitimoycr, of Basel.

William II. Flower, of London.

George Rollcston, of Oxford, England.

Thomas .11. Huxley, of London.

Joseph D. Hooker, of Kew, England.

John Phillips, of Oxford, England.

J. J. A. Worsaae, of Copenhagen.

Sven Nillson, of Lund.

Auguste Carlier, of Paris.

Benjamin S. Lyman, of Philadelphia,

Henry C. Baird, of Philadelphia.

Samuel ,1. Reeves, of Philadelphia,

Hector Tyndalc, of Philadelphia.

Joshua 15. Lippincott, of Philadelphia,.

Horace liinney, Jr., ofPhiladelphia.

William Blackmore, of Salisbury, England.

D. S. Brinton, ofPhiladelphia.

A. I). White, of Ithaca, N. Y.

J. II. C. Coffin, of Washington, D. C.

Joseph Wharton, ofPhiladelphia.

LIST OF MEMBERS REPORTED DECEASED OR RESIGNED

SINCK THE PUBLICATION OF THE LAST V01UMH.

Henry Carleton, of Philadelphia,.

Charles W. Short, of Lexington, Ky.

William Darlington, of West Chester, Pa.

(!. (1. C. Reinwardt, of Leyden.

George A. Otis, of Boston.

C. E. Demm^, of Philadelphia.

Calvin Pease, of Eoehcster, Now York.

Thomas E. Black well, of London.

Jacoh Grimm, of Berlin.

Joseph S. Hubbard, of Washington, T). C.

Lewis Wain, of Philadelphia.

Edward Hitchcock, of Amherst, Mass.

Franklin Bache, of Philadelphia.

(I. A. Jahn. of Munich.

Evan Pugh, of Bellcfonte, Pa.

J. G. Totteu, U. 8. A.

Benjamin Gerhard, of Philadelphia.

Josiah Quiney, of Massachusetts.

Thomas Dunlap, of Philadelphia.

Ed. E. Law (resigned), of Philadelphia.

William Pepper, of Philadelphia.

John Washington, of England.

Hcinrich Rose, of Berlin.

Roger B. Taney, of Washington, D. C.

Benjamin Silliman, of New Haven.

Ross Cuthbert, of Lower Canada.

H. E. Schoolcraft.

George M. Dallas, of Philadelphia.

Fr. <;. W. Struve, of St. Petersburg.

Edward Everett, of Boston.

.1. M. (iilliss, of Washington, D. 0.

E. S. M. Jackson, of Cresson, Pa.

Thomas B. Wilson, of Philadelphia.

Charles C. Rafn, of Copenhagen.

Edwin James, of Albany.

John Davis, of Boston.

I). I'1. Escbricht, of Copenhagen.

Baron Von Bonne, of Berlin.

William P. Foulke, of Philadelphia.

Admiral Dupont, of Delaware

C. J. Thomsen, of Copenhagen.

James Dundas, of Philadelphia.

Alonzo Potter, of Philadelphia.

Charles J. Wistor, of Philadelphia.

William J. Hooker, of Kow, England.

Francis Wayland, of Providence, If. I.

.loli. Fr. Encke, of Berlin.

William L. Storrs, of Connecticut. William M. dhler, of Philadelphia. John Lindley, of England. Henry D. Eogers, of Glasgow. Paul 15. Goddard, of Philadelphia. Matthew W. Baldwin, of Philadelphia. A. A. Gould, of Boston. J. I). Graham, U. S. T. E. George Ord, of Philadelphia. Oswald Thompson, of Philadelphia. E. S. Bring, of Lund. G. Forchhammer, of Copenhagen. Jarcd Sparks, of Albany. Frederick Troyon, of Lausanne. Henry Vethake, of Philadelphia. William B. Reed (resigned), of Philadelphia. William Jcnks, of Boston. Lewis Cass, of Detroit. William Nori-is, of Philadelphia. G. W. Featherstonhaugh. Alexander D. Bache, of Washington. John IP Alexander, of Baltimore. Maximilian' Von Wied. John Penington, of Philadelphia. William H. Harvey, of Dublin. George Fr. Jilger, of Stuttgard. J. F. Goodsir, of Edinburgh, Stephen Elliot, of South Carolina. MichaeJ Faraday, of London. A. F. Kupffer, of St. Petersburg. James Jackson, of Boston. Chester Dewey, of Rochester, N. Y. Stephen II. Long, CJ. S. A. A. P. Callisen, of Altona. W. II. Delancy, of Philadelphia. Charles G. B. Daubeny, of England. M. Flourens, of Paris. Joseph E. Ingcrsoll, of Philadelphia- Tobias Wagner, of Philadelphia. William Gibson, of Philadelphia. William C. Eives, of Virginia. James Buchanan, of Lancaster, Pa. Edward Coles, of Philadelphia. Charles A. Morlot, of Switzerland. George A. McCall, of Philadelphia. M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville. Francis West, of Philadelphia.

TRANSACTIONS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

A E T I C L E I.

ON CALIF ORNIAN MORS US.

BY LEO LESQUEREUX.

Head June 19th, 1803.

The history of the Mosses or the Bryologia* of the western shores of the North Ameri- can continent, presents a peculiar anomaly: that of having been noticed by one of the earliest celebrated botanists of England, and of being, even at this time, scarcely known to the scientific world. Menzies collected specimens of mosses in California and Southern Oregon during his travelling explorations from 1787 to 1793. Some of the species were published by himself in the Transactions of the IAnnean Society ; others by Hooker in his Muscologia Exotica, and a few by Schwsegrichen, The number of these species was quite small. In Midler's Synopsis Muscoriim, which appeared in 1851, there are only fifteen species published and described from the western shores of North America.

The first important contribution to the Bryologia of California was made by Dr. Bigc- low, botanist of a United States exploration from the Mississippi to the Pacific Oeean

* I use this word in its general sense as representing the history of the mosses, either in their specific relation or in their local and geographical distribution.

VOL. XIII.-

2 ON OALIFOBNIAN MOSSES.

under Lieutenant A. W. Whipple. The mosses there gathered by this excellent botanist were enumerated and described by Mr. W. S. Sullivant for the report of the explorations in 1856. Somewhat later, in 1859, a gentleman from Germany, Mr. T. Bauer collected mosses in a tour from San Francisco to the Sierra Nevada, and sent them to Ilampc, who published a description of eleven species in a pamphlet prepared in 1860 for the Bot. Zeitung. llcccntly, a young botanist, Mr. Ily. Bolander, formerly of Columbus, Ohio, having taken up his residence at San Francisco, has given particular attention to the study of the Californian mosses, and in less than one year, has collected as many species as all the other collectors together. Mr. Bolander's contribution is rendered particularly interesting to bryological science, not only by the number of species, but by the great care manifested in collecting and preserving fine specimens in a perfect state of maturity, and in such abundance as to render examinations satisfactory, and also noting the time of maturity, the habitat, and all circumstances necessary to arrive at a correct knowledge of the species in all its phases.

He sent me by mail, almost weekly, examples of species new to science or new for Cali- fornia. Ilampe's remarks about the Bryologia of the Sierra Nevada, — that this country is still for mosses terra incognita, is apparently applicable to the whole State of California. Nevertheless, the following enumeration of Mr. Bolander's mosses will show, as was already done by that of Dr. Bigelow's collection, that the conclusions of the celebrated German botanist cannot be taken in such a general way as he appears to have done, and that the species are by far not all new.

SPECIES OE MOSSES COLLECTED BY ME. IIY. BOLANDER IN CALIFORNIA (1802 to 1803).

1. Epiiemerum scrratum Jlm,p.

In a meadow near Mission-Dolores. March.

2. Acaulon in u t i c u m C. Mull. / Same place. March.

3. Phascum ouspidatum Schreb.

Same place. Var : s p i 1 i f e r u m h u m i 1 e Bryol. Ear. On the ground near Oakland, San Francisco. March.

4. Pleubidium subulaturu Bryol. Eur.

The calyptra has a longer point than the European form, which is the only difference. Wet ditches and dry hills, San Francisco. April.

5. Weisia viridula Brid.

A very variable species. One of the Californian forms has the capsule somewhat longer

ON CALIFORN1AN MOSSES.

and more slender, pale green, marked, even before full maturity, with eight regular deep stricc. The teeth arc simple, shorter, irregular, variable in size. On the ground, San Francisco.

6. WEISIA cirrliata llciho.

Appears abundant in California, and variable. A fine form sent with the normal one, is more compactly cscspitosc, with shorter leaves, longer teeth of the peristome often split at the summit and marked with stronger articulations. Grows on the stumps of Sequoia viridis, ltcdwood, &c, around San Francisco.

7. Dicrantjm varium Brid.

On perpendicular sandstone rocks, constantly watered by a spring near the Bay of San Francisco. The watering has elongated the stems, rendering them more slender, and giving to this form a peculiar look, different from its common appearance. Nevertheless, anatomical examination does not show any modification of specific characters.

8. Ceratodon purpura us Brid.

The common form and also a variety with white pedicels (var. xautlio p u s Sul. & Lcsq. in Musci exsic. Amer. 1st edit.) On roots and stumps of Sequoia viridis, Sec. '.). Fissidens limbatus Sul. Bot. of the Ex. Wet, sliady ground near San Francisco. May. Appears common.

10. Triciiostomum top ha ecu m Brid.

Wet rocks, Fort Point. This species shows on its peristome all the varieties indicated in the Bryologia Europea. Even a smaller form with shorter capsules and a dark green color of foliage, has the peristomal teeth generally short, obtuse, muted in one in their whole length, presenting thus a peristome of sixteen short, somewhat irregular divisions, like that of some Seligerke. But even on the same specimens, this variety disappears, and some capsules have the divided teetlx of a true T richosto m u m.

11. Triciiostomum floxipcs Bryol. Eur.

Triciiostomum crassinervc Ilampe, in pamphlet, 18(50. Mr. Hampe lias made of this a new species, separated by the smaller size of the plants, narrower leaves, thicker evanes- cent nerves, smaller areolation, and white peristomal teeth. Comparing Bolander's and Hampe's specimens with original specimens from Sardinia, I find them perfectly identical. The areolation is the same, the color of the peristome, as well as the size of the plant and of the leaves are variable. This year, Mr. Bolander sent from Marin County specimens twice as Large as the European ones, all the leaves having an evanescent nerve. In this large variety, the pedicel of the capsule is perfectly straight, as it is often also in the com- mon form. Grows o:; siiady ground near Oakland, &c. ; appears common in California.

ON OALI.FORNI.AN MOSSES.

12. BARBULA vinoalis Brid.

Very common and variable around San Francisco ; on rocks, boulders, and wet ditches near the bay. May. Var. « has the ramification, form of leaves, &c, of Barbula vincalis; but the operculum and peristome of Barbula flcxifolia limp. Var. /? f 1 a c c i d a Bryol. Eur. has the capsule and operculum of Barbula vinealis, and the long-linear, lanceolate, canaliculate, open-reflexed, loosely-imbricated leaves of Barbula flcxifolia. This variety is apparently the equivalent of Barbula e 1 a t a G. MUll. Same habitat as the normal form.

13. Barbula flcxifolia Hampe he. cit.

The characters separating this species from Barbula vinealis arc, 1st. The leaves crisped when dry, squarrosc-reflexed when humected, with revolutc margins. 2d. The somewhat narrower, dark red capsule, with a longer operculum. 3d. The longer and more twisted teeth of the peristome, and their red color. These last characters are un- reliable, the teeth varying in color, and being more or less twisted even on the same specimens, according to the age of the capsule. The characters taken from the leaves are also unreliable, and as this moss covers the sand along the shores, and in the vicinity of boulders covered with Barbula v i n e a 1 i s, these differences, I think, may be ascribed to variations from change of habitat.

14. Barbula virescens Sp. nov. Inflorescentia, ramifieatione priori proximo, differt: Caule longiori, inferno brunco, supernc arnoeno pallida vircsccnte ; foliis longiorlbus c basi lancoolatis, margine usque ad apicem revolutis, undulatis, arcolatione duplo laxiori, distincta, arcolis ovalibus; periob.8Gtialibus apertis ; opereulo brcviori, annulo latiori.

Tins species is intermediate between Barbula f 1 e x i f o 1 i a Hmjp. and B a r b u 1 a scmitorta Sul., two species already closely related. From the first it differs essen- tially by the areolation ; from the second, by the revolute margin of the longer leaves, a longer arid more twisted peristome, and a broader basilar membrane. On rocks, Redwood and Oakland, near San Francisco.

15. Barbula artoearpa Spec. nov. Dioiea, compaete csespitosa. Caule gracili, brcvi, subsimpliei. Foliis inforioribus brevibus, e basi ovata lancoolatis, ncrvo valido percurrcuto brcvi-subulatis ; superioribus longi- oribus, longius lanceolatos ubulatis ; Perichsetialibus latioribus, basi amplcctentibus supernc coarctatis subulatis ereotisj Arcolatione foliorum compacta illoe Barbulcc vinealis simili; Capsula ovata cylindrica brevi gracili, ore coarctata, opereulo longo rostrato subcurvato; Annulo simplici pcrsistentc lato ; Peristoma dentibus gracilioribus, albidis, semel fcortis.

Except for its pretty large annulus, this species would agree with B a r b u 1 a g r a c His Schw. which it exactly resembles by the ramification, the form of the leaves and of the capsule. It is also nearly related to Barbula subfallax C. Mull, which has also no annulus, and a shorter basilar membrane. Mount del Diablo, California

ON CALIFOKNIAN MOSSES.

It is, indeed, with some misgiving, that I add two new species to this group of B ar- bulae already too much divided. But I have no other alternative but to do it, or to recall as mere varieties a number of forms considered as species by other authors, and whose characters arc of the same kind and no more definite.

16. Baebula o o n v o 1 u t a Eedw.

On rocks near San Francisco. May.

17. Barbula W a h 1 i a n a Schultz. Clay soil, San Francisco.

18. Baebula Bolanderi Spec. nov. Gregaria, dioioa. Caule brevi simplici] vel fasoiculatim comante- rauioso; Foliis inferioribus brcvibus apcrtis, suporioribus dense in rossulam imbrioatis rcflexis lingulatis vol ob- longis obtusis vol ncrvo crasso fusco pcrcurrcnte brcvi-apiculatis, margins m.cdio rcflexis, raro revolutis, quando- quo planis; areolatione basilari quadrato-elongata laxa pcllucida superne densa ohlorophyllosa quadrata-polygona papillosa. Periohrotialibus internis brevioribus. Capsula in pedioello brovi rubello orasso, cylindrica erecta vol sub- cornua atro-sanguinea ; operculo rostrato obtusiuseulo. Peristomii dentibus graoilioribus tortilibus rubellis granu- losis; membrana basilari angusta tessellato luteo-albida ; annulo brevi simplici pcrsistcnte. Planta mascula gra- oiliori, fotnincis intormixta. Perigonialibus brcvibus, c basi late ovata superne lanecolatis obtusis, antlieridiis paucis paraphysibus quo duplo Iongioribus apieo inflatis.

A fine species allied to B a r b u 1 a m a r g i n a t a Bryol. Eur. Rocks near the Bay of San Francisco. Abundant.

19. Baebula am pic xa Spec. nov. Gregaria, dioioa, priori valde affinis. Caule simplici brevi ; foliis laxe imbricatis apcrtis lingulatis Iongioribus mollibus obtusis ncrvo valido sub apice evanido instruotis ; areolatione basi laxa quadrato-elongata, superior! densiori polygona pellucida ccliloropliyllosa ; Perieluctialibus internis binis clon- gatis, vaginulam arete amplectentibus, erectis apiee tantum subito rcflexis ; Capsula in podiccllo rubello brevi, oylindrica ereota broviori, colore pallide-viridi ; oporculo recto obtuso pallida rubello. Peristomio, annulo flore que masculo priori similibus.

Tins species is distinct from the former, especially by its soft leaves with empty areola- tion ; by the long internal pcrichactial leaves, erect and embracing the vaginula and the base of the pedicel, and only refiexed at the summit ; by the shorter, smaller capsule and shorter lid of a different color. Near San Francisco. May.

20. BARBULA mural is Hedw.

A few specimens of this species were sent, mixed with Barbula flcxifolia limp, labelled : On rocks near San Francisco.

21. Barbula laevipila Schw.

The Californian species appears a reduced form of the European. It lias shorter stems, shorter leaves, and a slender capsule. On clay soil in Mount Diabolo. May.

6 ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

22. Barbula rural is Hedto.

On rocks near Mission Dolores, Oakland, &c. Very common in California. May.

23. Barbula M filler i Bryoi. Ear.

On rocks ; less frequent than the former, and found in the mountains. Mount Diablo. May.

24. Barbula la ti folia Bryol. Ear.

On a fence-post near a creek three miles from San Rafael, Marin County. April, 1863.

25. Desmatodon flavicans Br. & Schmp, On clay soil, San Francisco. Rare.

26. Desmatodon nervosus Br. & Schmp.

On the walls of an old Indian abode, and on clay soil; rare. It differs from the Euro- pean form by the leaves being Ungulate, a little; more obtuse and shorter apiculate, and by the inflation of the strong nerve above the middle. This last character is not persis- tent.

27. Anacalyi'ta Starkeana Bryol. Eur. var. fi b r a o h y o d u g. Wcisia affinit Hook & Tayh Clay soil, San Francisco.

28. Tetraj'His pellucid a Iledw. Rotten wood.

29. Enoalypta vulgaris L.

Monte del Diablo, on clay soil, fissure of rocks.

30. Zyoodon Californicum G. Milll. Mr. Miillcr lias not seen the male plant of this species. Inflo- rescentia dioica; planta mascula in iisdem cscspitibus intcrmixta, femineis validiori sub fioribus innovanto ramosa ; floribus masculinis pcntaphyllis; perigonialibus extcrnis duobus o basi dilatata longo linearibus internis brcvibus coticavis ovato-lanceolatis aeutis, versus apicem dentatis ncrvo ultra medium ovauido; antheridiis nurnerosis para- pliysibus que brcvibus paucis.

Grows on shaded rocks in a creek, near the road to a paper mill, Marin County. April, 1863.

31. Ortiiotriciium Texan um Sul.

The teeth of the peristome of this species arc often separated by sixteen rudimentary fugacious cilioli. The inflorescence is monoecious and the male dowers axillary. On shaded stones near Oakland, San Francisco.

32. ORTrioTRiciiUM eylindrooarpum Spec.nov. Orthotrioho strangulato affine, differt ; capsula longi-

ON CALTFORNIAN MOSSES.

colla longiori cylindrica graciliori emersa; opcrculo conico longiori ; calyptra longiori fusco-lutca, capsulam fere totam tcgente, valde pilosaj vaginula pilis longis dense obtecta; dentibus peristomii extcrni pallidis, ciliolis ro- bustia longioribus albidis articulatis ; flore maseulo tenninali.

The male flowers arc generally at the top of a branch above the innovations, and not merely axillar. The dry, empty capsule is not contracted below the mouth. The ramifi- cation, leaves, and areolation are the same. Oakland, on trees, scarce.

88. Ortiiotrioiium L y e 1 1 i i Hook. var. foliis longioribus siecitatc magis crispatis Brirf.

The species is extremely variable, especially for the size of the leaves, sometimes covered with long papillae, sometimes nearly smooth. It grows on granite rocks and on trees. The form growing on boulders has the leaves generally shorter, sometimes turned to one side, especially at the top of the branches. This form is apparently Orthotrichum papillosum Ilampc. Our species has only rarely the confervoid filaments which cover the European form. It is common in California.

34. Ortiiotbiciium r i v u 1 a r e Turn.

On a fence-post near a creek, Marin County, together with 13 a r b u 1 a 1 a t i f o 1 i a Bryol. Eur.

35. Soiiistidium confertum Bryol. Ear. var. foliis brcvi-piliferis, areolatione densiori, dentibus peristomii rubelli ultra medium superne valde irregulariter laccrato dentatis.

I have not seen the calyptra. This may be a distinct species. On metamorphic rocks, Mount Diablo. May.

86. Grimmia Californioa Sul. On granite boulders, Mission Dolores, &c. Common. April.

37. Grimmia triohopbylla Grcv.

On sandstone near Oakland. Among other varieties of this species, there is one with a dark green color, leaves with a shorter hairy point, or even obtuse without pellucid point areolation more distinctly square at the base, and more compact-obscure above, which might be separated in a species. But these variations are apparently due to the habitat, and this variable species has been already too much divided. ' It grows on granite boulders near Presidio.

38. Grimmta m out a n a Bryol. Ear.

It differs in nothing from the European form but by the dark green color of the plants. Monte del Diablo. April.

ON" CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

39. G rimmta lcucopliaca Grcv.

A variety with the hair-point of the leaves more strongly dentate, and the teeth of the peristome more irregularly divided. On granite boulders ; common.

40. Hacomitrium canescens Uriel.

It is also a variety differing from the European form by a narrower arcolation nearly continuous near the base of the leaves and not papillous ; by the hairy pellucid point of the leaves, dentate only, but not rugulosc ; by the cylindrical-ovate capsule of a lighter color. The plants are generally stronger, and the leaves longer. This variety, by its areolation, bears to the normal form the same relation as this bears to the variety ericoides with more papillous and rugose leaves. On shaded rocks at the banks of a creek, Marin County. April.

41. Hedwigia c i 1 i a t a 1'Jhrh.

On stumps of Sequoia v i r i d i s, California. I have never seen this species grow- ing on wood. There may have been a change of labels. Tin's new habitat is remarkable indeed.

42. Bracnia Californica Spec, nov. Monoioa, laze caespitosa, fusoo-lutea. Caule primario subrcpente valdo diverse ramoso; ramis creotis graeilibus julaccia apico incrassatis duris, vcl simplioibus vol irregulariter in- novantc ramosis, ramulis brcvibus rariua flagelliferis ; foliis in sieco apprcssis, humiditate apertis, ramorum apioe subsccundis, e basi subdecurrcntc oblongo ovatis, apiec brevi lanceolatis, pollueide aouminatis vol aoumine lon- giori flexuoso lasvi peliferis enerviis, margins versus basim superno que reflexis, medio revolutis; areolatione basilari elongata, alari quadrata, superiori ovato -polygon a puleherrime seriatim catcnulata distincta, utraque pagina prsocipue externa papillosa; Perichsetialibus brcvioribus lanceolatis-acutis raro pellueide brevi acuminatis; capsula in pedieello semipolieari pallido luteo sinistrorsum torto, turbinata ore dilatata nuda; opereulo conieo-olongato obtuso recto.

By the general appearance and color of the stems, this species resembles the slender form of Hedwigia c i 1 i a t a, the leaves being always terminated by a diaphanous, sometimes very long hairy point. The straight hard branches arc variable in thickness, generally inflated at the innovations, and below the short flowers bearing branches. The male flowers, like the female, are at the top of one of these branches. Their many-leaved floral envelope has oval, short, pointed leaves, the point also diaphanous. As in the other species of this genus, the vaginula is very long, descending to the base of the fruit-bearing branch. The capsule, of a light brown color, is, when dcoperculated, exactly top-shaped, broad-mouthed. The dark yellow calyptra split on one side is long, and incloses the whole capsule till its maturity. Grows in large patches on mctamorphized rocks in Mount Diablo, up to 3000 feet. April, 180:3.

43. Atrioiium u n d u 1 a t u m Beauv.

Santa Cruz Mountain, 4000 feet. Prof. Brewer, legit.

ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

44. PoLYTRIOHUM junipcrinu m lledw. Hocks, Mission Dolores, &c.

45. Aulacomnium a. ti d r o gy n u ra ScJur.

On my Californian specimens, the male flowers are disciform as Bridel indicates it, and not gemmiform as is generally the case in the European specimens. The brown antheri- diae and filiform paraphyses arc very numerous. On old logs of Sequoia v i r i d i s ; appears to be common in California. April.

46. Bryum Tozzcri Grcv.

Deep shaded ditches near San Francisco.

47. Bryum Wahlenbergii Sahw. Wet rocks, San Francisco. May.

48. Bryum Billarderii Schw. Deep Canon, Mount Diablo. May.

49. Bryum Oaliforniou ta Sul.

In its full development, the cilioli of the internal peristome are long, mostly two together, and appendiculate. Common in the hills of Oakland on ground, in meadows near shrubs. April.

50. Bryum occidcntalc Sul.

Like its near relative Bryum ccespiticiwm, this species is very variable. The ramification is from below and around the first fruit-bearing bud. The branches more or less nume- rous, nearly naked below, arc cither short, bearing at the top a thick bud of closely im- bricated, short ovate, pointed, concave leaves ; or, on sandy wet soil, become elongated, flagelliform, bearing distant, lanceolate, narrow, pointed leaves. The color of the capsule is as variable as its size. It is more generally blood red, but in the shade, it is either buff colored, or even greenish or variegated, half red, half brown. On sandy soil and rocks near the Bay of San Francisco.

51. Mnium insigne Mitt.

In woods, Oakland. Sterile.

52. Mnium Mcnzicsii 0. MUll.

Shaded banks of a creek, Marin County. April, 18G3.

53. Bartramua striota Brkl.

Differs only from the normal form by the pedicel round-oval at the top, and not square. On rather wet rocks, Mission Dolores.

votj. xiii. — 2

10

ON CAL1KOUNIAN MOSSES.

54. Bartramia Menziesii Turn.

Glyphocarpa Baucri Eampe in pamphlet, 18G0. Dioica, laze, late, etespitosaj Caule elongato, bi-tri-

pollicari ct ultra, simplici vel parce innovante ramoso, c basi folioso, usque ultra medium tomentoso radiculoso brunnco, superne amoone viridi ; Foliis undique appressis vel subapcrtis, humiditate crccto-apcrtis, c basi cava plieata margins rcflcxa ovato-lanccolata, superne lanceolato subulatis, margine dcntatis, dorso nervoquo valido in subulam cxcunte scabris ; Perichsctialibus longioribus vix latioribus conformibus ; Arcolatione foliorum basi quadrato-minori distincta, superne longiori obseura papillosa; Thcca in pedicello innovando lateral; scmipollicari pallidc rubello vel straminco sinistrorsum torto, ovali croeta regular! losvi pallidc rufescente vel viridi ; ore nuda, membrana simplici tan turn oiroumdata; vel membrana irrogulariter laciniata sub vel somi-pcristomata; vol denti- bus 16 lanceolatis, irrogulariter articulatis fusco-rubcllis baud vel cum linea mcdiali notatissimplicitcr sed perfeote peristomata; Planta maseula sic ct fscminca innovando-latcrali vel terminali gemmacca; Foliis perigonialibus basi ovatis subito longe subulatis seabris ; antberidiis elongatis curvatis fusco luteis paraphysibusquc numerosis.

This species is evidently the one described by Turner, and collected by Mcnzics in Cali- fornia in 1792, as shown by original specimens preserved in Taylor's herbarium, and kindly furnished to me for comparison by Mr. Wra. S. Sullivant. The above-described modifications of the peristome would at first lead to the belief that there arc two different species, the one without, the other with a simple peristome-. But on the same specimen, I have found some capsules with a simple peristome of sixteen irregular, brown-reddish teeth ; others with the pellucid peristomatal membrane, either simple and entire, or broken in short lacunae without definite shape, and more or less united together, or with the same membrane divided into sixteen lacinia? already talcing the shape of irregular teeth, but still preserving the pellucid tissue of the membrane. It is therefore evident (bat some peculiar influence, causing a more or less perfect development of the plant, is the only reason of the difference. The oval form of the capsules is more or less elongated, sometimes nearly round; except this all the characters arc perfectly alike. This remarka- ble variation in the peristome exemplifies the value of Schimpcr's assertion in the Bryo- nia Europca ; that little reliance can be put on the peristome of the Bartramia} to found <>-cneric divisions. We have here both the genera G 1 y p h o c a r p u s Brid. and B a r- t r a m i a Auct. united in the same species.

According to Mr. Bolandcr, this Bartramia is very common in California, growing on rocks, Mission Dolores, Marin County, Mount Diablo, &C.

55. Funaria M ublonb ergi i Schw. Deep Canon, Mount Diablo.

56. Enthostodon Bolandori Sp. nov. Enthoitodonte Templetoni simile dift'ert: foliis longius aoumi- natis, laxius areolatis, nervo vix medio ascendente ; Cupsulw collo longiori, basi subinflato, oapsulaque propria brcviori ovato-turbinata ; operculo longiori, umbonato vel convexo obtuso apiculato ; peristomii dentibus integris articulatis (nee nodosis) ; Foliis perigonialibus cnervibus. Enthostodonti commutalo MiilJ. quoquc proximum

ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES. 11

differt : foliis versus apicem subdentatis (ncc integcrrimis) pcristomiiquc dentibus tantum artioulatis (ncc no- dosis, noo linca media exaratis).

Wet rocks near the Bay of San Francisco. April.

57. Physcomitritjm pyriforme Brid.

On swampy ground, Marin County. April. Scarcely ripe.

58. Eontinalis Oalifornioa Sul. Hot. of the Ex. In a willow swamp near San Bafael. April.

59. Antitriohia Oalifornioa Sul. MSS. Antitriohira eurti pendulss proxima differt : ramis brevioribus julaccis filiformibus vc; foliis in siceo arete comprcssis, brevius aeuminatis vix dentatis, areolatione donsiori; capsula oylindrica longiorc rubella; pediccllobrovioro recto; peristoma dentibus laxius ct obscure artioulatis; sporis duplo minoribus ; periohsatialiis longius lanceolato-acuminatis dentatis; vaginuhi erassiore.

On oak trees near San Francisco. Mr. Sullivant, in Botany of Whipple's Expedition, considered this species as different ; but the specimens of the Expedition were without fruit, and thus it could not be exactly determined.

60. Eabronia p u s i 1 1 a Raddi. On oak trees, San Francisco.

61. Pterouonium graoile Eedw.

Leptolii/mcn ium duplica to-serratum J /m p.

Mr. Ilampc has made a new species of our Californian moss; but after a close examina- tion of a large number of specimens, I do not find any difference between the European species and ours, except perhaps a little larger annulus for this last. The character taken from the size of the plant is unreliable; some Californian specimens being larger than any of those which I have from Europe, and the serrature of the leaves appears just the same in both forms. On rocks near the Bay of San Francisco. Common.

62. Alsia o i r o i n a t a Sul. Iconea Muse. tab. 72b ined. Lcptodon circinatus Sul. in Whipple's Expedition.

Dr. Bigclow's collection had only male plants of this species, which by leaves and rami- fication is closely allied to the genus Leptodon. Mr. Bolander has collected it with ripe capsules, and the peristome shows the species to be a true Alda. On oak trees near San Francisco.

G3. Ar-siA Oalifornioa Sul. On trees, rocks, &c. Common.

(34. IIyl-niim o r i s pi f ol i u m /look. Muse. exot. Il;/pnum (Thuidium) ramulomm Ilampc. in lill. C. Null.

Though Hooker's figure and description of this species are not satisfactory, the essential

12

ON CALIFORNIA^ MOSSES.

characters of his species agree well with Mailer's description, and also with our specimens. It is remarkable enough by its granular areolation (arcolis reticuli minutissimis Hook.), its whitish or nearly pellucid nerve (nervo pallido saepe sub pellucido Hook.), the long dentate flcxuous acumen of the leaves (folia ramea omnia longc acuminata quandoque pilo flexuoso tcrminata Hook.), its short, rough, red pedicel (seta uncialis rubra tubercu- losa Hook.) &c. Mr. Hooker even mentions the split teeth of the internal peristome re- sembling that of a 15 a r t r a m i a, and the general resemblance of the moss in some points with H y p n u m a b i e t i n u m. Midler's description of II y p n u m ram u 1 o s u m agrees perfectly and in every point with our specimens. On shaded rocks near the Paper Mill, Marin County.

65. Hypnum (lliiYNCOSTEauiM) ruseiforme Weie. Spring in a canon near San Francisco.

66. Hypnum (Tiiamnium) B i g e 1 o w i i Sal.

On the bark of trees and on the ground. Very variable in size.

07. Hypnum (Eurynciiium) Stock csii Bryol, Ear. On the ground in the shade. Common.

08. Hypnum (Eurynciiium) Whipplcanum Sul. Bot. of the Ex.

Specimens of this species found mixed with Fissidcns limbatus in Mr. Bolan- dcr's collection, show that the pedicel is sometimes smooth. On shady ground near San Francisco.

09. Hypnum (Eurynciiium) Orcganum Sul.

On shaded old logs in a creek, Marin County.

70. Hypnum (Isotiiecium) Brcwcrianum Spec. mm. Ilypno myosuroidi per affine differt : oolore sordidc-luteo viridi, caespitibus densioribus, ramis crassioribus, subjulaccis, raro elongatis filiformibus ; foliia arete im- brieatis appressis, versus basim latioribus, supcrnc subito in aouraino brevi contracts, valde concavia vix dentieu- latis. Ecriehaitialibus longius lancoolato subulatis rcflcxis j capsula cylindrica breviorc rufa.

This species could be considered as Hypnum s t o 1 o n i f e r u m Hook., but that this last species has, according to Hooker, drooping capsules and plants of a larger size. Hooker's plant was collected by Menzies on the roots of trees, even pending from branches. Ours, according to Mr. Bolandcr's remarks, grows on granite rocks near Mission Dolores. It was also collected by Professor Brewer of the Californian State Geological Survey, and is dedicated to him.

71. Hypnum (Brachytiieoium) Bolanderi Spec. nov. Dioieum laxe lateque crespitosum pallida amoene

viride. Caulc diverse ranioso, raruis elongatis flexuosis, vel subcrectis rigidis sub pinnatim vage ramosis; Foliis undique imbricatis apertis, ovato-lancoolatis brevitcr acuminatis margine piano undiquo serrulatis, nervo ultra

ON CAL1FOKNIAN MOSSES.

13

medio instructs ; arcolationo laxiori, oellulis angustis pcllucidis, alaribus parum numerosis distinctis ovato-quadratis pelluoidisj Perichsetialibus e basi lata vaginantibus pclluoido laxc elongate retioulatis subito fere in aeumine flexuoso vol subreflexo attenuatis obsolete nervosis 5 Theoa in pedunoulo brcvi semipollioari ragoso sanguinoo, gibboso-ovali ; annulo lato oomposito revolubili, oporeulo conico-acuto brevi ; peristoma interni dentibushyantibus, eiliis binis gracillimis separatis.

Ab Hypno Sullivantii Spruce, proximo differt : arcolationo foliorum laxiorc; cellulis alaribus majoribus quadratis distinctis : foliis margine planis; annulo latiori revolubili; oporeulo eonico brcvi, &e.

On the ground in the shade of O r e o d a p h n e C a 1 i f o r n i c a. April.

72. Hypnum (SOLEROPODITJM) illeeebrum Bryol, Eur.

On rocks and on the ground, San Francisco, Oakland.

73. Hypnum (Solekopodium) oaespitosu m Bryol. Eur.

On the ground among shrubs, &c, near San Francisco.

74. Hypnum (Scleropodium) Calif ornioum Spec. nov. Dioicum, laxo intrioato-osespitosum, Caulc serpente vage ramoso j ramis longioribus fUiformibus radicantibus ; foliis laxo imbrioatis apertis, ovato-lanceolatis aouminatis ooncavia integris vol vix serrulatis, nervo valido sub aeumine ovanido instruetis ; arcolationo angustata clongata, cellulis alaribus numerosis, ovato-quadratis distinotis plus minusvc granulosis ; Pericbfctialibus late ovato-amplcctcntibus supcrnc lanoeolatis longe piliformi aouminatis, internis creetis, cxtcrnis aeumine reflexis ; capsula in podicello elongate gracili torto supcrnc tantum papilloso rubollo, inferne stramineo laevi, ovata-cylindrica brcvi, pallide viridi cernua sub ore subeonstrieta, vacua erecta eqnali; late composite annulataj Opcreulo pallido oonioo aoutiusoulo lato ; Peristoma externi dentibus sanguineis, interni eiliis luteis pertusis, eiliolis singulis vel binis robustis artioulatis separatis. Florae masoulse antheridiis robustis numerosis paraphysatis ; foliis perigoniali- bus late-ovatis brcvi-aeuminatis integris.

On rocks and dry sand near the Bay of San Francisco.

75. Hypnum (Camptotiiecium) arenarium Spec. nov. Dioicum, laxo latcquc csespitosum. Caulc in- tricate subcrccto parco vageque ramoso ; ramis sceundariis vel brovibus creetis subcurvatis utrinquc attenuatis, vol longioribus filiformibus radicantibus. Foliis confertis undiquc imbrioatis creetis subapprcssis, lanecolatis aou- minatis striatis, margine rcflexo subscrrulatis, plieaturoa marginalia basi utrinque cavis, nervo valido sub aeumine ovanido instruetis, dense angustc areolaris, cellulis alaribus numerosis basim integram folii efficicntibus, ovato- rotundatis minimis vix distinctis; Perieluxtii elongati foliis externis brcvioribus latc-ovato acuminatis reflexis, supcrioribus ampleetcntibus subito in aeumine piliformi crceto vel rcflexo serrulato terminatis, margine superne croso parcc grosse dentatis, arcolationo laxa basi quadrata polygona supcrnc clongata pellucida ; Foliis perigoniali- bus brevibus late-ovatis brevi aouminatis vel aeutis integris nervosis, arcolationo pellucida; Capsula in podicello elongate gracili basi papilloso rugoso supcrnc sublccvi, parva ovato-cylindrica cernua; Oporeulo magno conieo obtuso apiculato; Processus interni eiliis pertusis, eiliolis binis vel singulis brovibus fugacissimis separatis; Annulo com- posite lato persistente.

Ab Hypno lutescente Ehdw, oui proximum, primo intuitu forma graeiliori, capsula cernua brevi, &c, differt.

Covering sand around bushes near San Francisco.

70. Hypnum Nut tallii With, Bryol. Brit, Leekea Califomica Ilampc. Pamphlet, 1800.

This fine species is a true C amptothecium related to Camptothecium aureum

14

ON" CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

Lag., and easily distinguished from any other species. On the hark of oak trees, common in California.

77. IlYrNUM (Amblysteoium) serpens L.

In a swamp at the foot of the Oakland Redwood Hills. March.

78. IIypnum subimponens Spec new. Ibjpno imponente primo intuitu similimum differt : Foliis cau- linis inte"-ris vel raro summo acumine subserrulatis ; cellulis alaribus vol iiullis vcl perpaucia minoribus; arcola- tione densiori ; foliis pcrielicetialibus brcvi-acuminatis croctis apprcssis intogris ; capsula graciliori cernua ; operculo conico-obtuso ; peristomii interni oiliis singulis vcl binis longis graoilimis; annulo couiposito lato rcvolubili; vagi- nula nuda.

Shaded rocks in a creek, Marin County.

79. IIvpnuji riparium *SY.

In a willow swamp, Marin County, &c.

Though we do not know probably one-half of the species of mosses inhabiting California, the materials on hand arc already sufficient to permit us an inquiring look into the general character and the geographical distribution of the Bryologia of that country.

Mr. W. S. Sullivant's examination of the mosses collected in California by Dr. Bigelow, has enumerated sixty-four species, thirty of which have not yet been found by Mr. Bo- lander. Menzies, Hooker, Hampe, Muller, and other authors have mentioned eighteen species from the west coast of North America, twelve of which are also not in Mr. I Jo- lander's collection. This gives us an amount of one hundred and twenty-one species of mosses now known in California. Of these, forty-two appear peculiar to Western North America, some of them ascending higher north in Oregon, but their northern range is still undetermined. Forty-two species are common to California, Eastern North America, and Europe ; thirty-four are found in California and Europe, but not in Eastern North America, and none are common to California and Eastern North America solely. Three species have a range going somewhat out of this division, Orthotrichvm Texanum and Ifi/pnum Nultallii appear to be species of a warmer climate; the first being found in Mexico, the second in Western Texas. Trichostomum corniculatum Schw. goes as high north as Kamtschatka.

The species common to California, Europe, and Eastern North America, are mostly wandering or universal species, found nearly over the whole world in a temperate zone : some ■Phascacece, Gymnostomum curvirostmm, Weisia viridula, Dicranum virem, Ceralodon purpureus, Tetr aphis pellucida, Iledwigia ciliata, Sec, &c. On the contrary, those common only to California and Europe, and wanting in Eastern North America, are typical forms : species of Trichostomum, Barbula, Desmatodon, Anacalypta, Zygodon, Braunia, Bryum, Hypnum, especially of the section Sdleropodium and Camptothecium. This at once already

ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

15

shows the relation of the Bryological flora of California with that of Europe, and at the same time its entire disruption from that of Eastern North America. But the relation between the mosses of California and of Europe, is rendered still more remarkable by the identity of the peculiar habitat of some species, and at the same time by the near affinity of species which we consider as true California!!, with typical European forms. Thus on one side, Mr. Bolander finds Dcmnatodon nervosum on the walls of an old Indian abode, and Schimper found it first on the old walls surrounding Strasbourg. Barbula latifolia and Orthofrichum urnigerum, both species very rare in Europe, grow sometimes together on the stumps of old willow trees, or on old logs near running water, and Mr. Bolander finds them in California both together on an old fence-post in a creek. Axacalypta Starkeana and Trichostomum flexipes have in California also just the same habitat that both have in Sardinia, Smyrna, and other places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea : for it is especially with the Mediterranean shores that California, is related by its mosses. On another side, and considering the afHnity of peculiar Califoruian species with Euro- pean types, we find Barbula vinealia pertaining to Europe and California, and here six or seven species described as new, but so nearly related to the normal form that they might be considered as varieties only. Barbula rnarginata, a peculiar type found all around the Mediterranean Sea, in Spain, South France, Algeria, &c, is in California, with two pecu- liar or new species also very nearly related to it. The species of Grimmia and of Bryum present in California the same subdivision of forms, and the same relation of new species with European types. In the section Scleropodivm of the genus Hypnum, we find in California with the two European species, a third one of a diminutive size but of the same affinity, and in the section Gamptothecium, California has a species nearly allied to Hypnum lutescens of Europe, having precisely the same and peculiar habitat, viz., covering the sand around bushes. Even the fine new Braunia, the Califoruian representative of a genus whose species are very rare, is related more perhaps with Braunia secunda Mild, of the barren mountains of Mexico, but nearly also with Braunia sciuroides Bryol. Eur., a very rare plant of the southern valleys of Switzerland.

Is it possible to explain this remarkable analogy between the Bryologia of California and that of Southern Europe, by some law of transmission of species between intermediate points as that which apparently governs the distribution of the phamogamous plants I As the disruption eastward through Eastern North America, is complete, we can only, to solve the question, look westward, in Japan and the adjacent islands, and sec if we find there some link of connection.

Of the Bryology of Japan, we know nearly as much as of that of California, especially from the researches and collections of Mr. Charles Wright. Now we find, according to

16 ON CALIFOKNIAN MOSSES.

data published formerly,* that of eighty-six species gathered in Japan, thirty-three are proper to that country and described as new ; eight are exclusively common to Japan and Eastern North America, six to Japan and Europe, thirty-one to Japan, Europe, and East- ern North America, seven to Japan, Europe, Eastern and Western North America, and two only common to Japan, Europe, and Western North America. From this it is also evident that there is no connection whatever westward between the Bryologia of Europe and that of California ; that this last stands thus entirely isolated, and that to explain its illation with the flora of Southern Europe, we have to look for another cause of distribu- tion than that of a transmission of species through intermediate points. Tins research is worth making, and to render it more inte'resting and at the same time more conclusive, the best way, I think, is to present in a tabular arrangement the number of species of each genus inhabiting the eastern and the western side of North America, compared with the number of species of the same genera found in Europe.

Counting all the species of mosses now known as belonging to Eastern North America, including Drummond's mosses, and those which have been found as far west as the Pocky Mountains, exclusively of those of Western North America, I find four hundred and ninety-three species. Perhaps a few more not yet recorded, have been found recently by Mr. Thomas P. James, or other American bryologists. Thus the round number five hundred would be reliable enough. Their distribution according to genera is as follows :

* Characters of some new Musci collected by Charles Wright in the North Pacific Exploring Expedition under the command of Captain John Kodgcra by William S. Sullivant and Leo Lesquercux (pamp., 1859).

ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES,

17

Whole nutnbei of species in each genus.		,t a	a v s a ft.	.91 si	Whole mimbei of species in each genus.		Sa a . « WW	13 C os a ft	03 .91 sl 3 '-3
No. 1, 16	Sphagnum, .	8	8		No. 21, 1	Conomitrium, .		1
2, 3	AndrEca, ....		3		22, 13	Eissidcns,	8	5
3, 1	Archidium, .	1			23, 9	Tricb.ostom.um, .	o	7
4, 18	Phasoum,	7	11	4	21, 18	Barbula, ....		13	o
5, 5	Bruohia,	5			25, 7	Dcsmatodon,	3	4	1|
6, 1	Ilymeiiostomum,* .		1		26, 1	Anacalypta, .		1
7, 3	Gymnostomum,		8	2	27, 4	Didymodon, .		4
8, 2	Woisia, ....		2	1	28, 2	Dystichium,		2
9, 2	Ilhabdoweisia, .		2		29, 1	Eustielrium,		1
10, 1	Blindia, ....		1		30, 4	l'ottia, ....		4	111
11, 3	Seligeria,		3		31, 1	Tctrapliis, . .		1	1
12, 1	Arctoa, ....		1		32, 1	Tctrodontium, .		1
13, 1	Oanipylostelium,~|" .		1		33, 6	Encalypta, .		6	1
14, 5	Campylopus,J .	4	1		34, 1	Syrrliopodon, . .	1
15, 1	Dicranodontium, .		1		35, 3	Zygodon,"| . . .	1	2
10, 2	Trcniatodon,	1	1		36, 1	Drummondia, .	1
17, 1	Angstrecmia, . .		1		37, 20	Orthotricliuin, .	6	14	2
18, 30	Dicranum, .	Q o	27	1	38, 1	Macromitrium, .	1
19, 1	Oeratodon, .		1	1	39, 1	Schlothcimia,**	1
20, 2	Loucobryum, . .	1	1		40, 2	Ptychoinitrium,	2

* Hymenostomum microslomum ranges from Massachusetts to the base of the Rooky Mountains. It was collected by Drummoud, and also by Mr. B. Hall, in a recent tour of botanical exploration with Dr. Parry, 1862.

t The very rare and beautiful Campyloslelium saxicola Bryol. Eur. was discovered this year by Mr. R. C. Ingraham, of New Bedford, Mass., on boulders of granite.

| 1 could add three apparently new species of this genus, brought from the Rocky Mountains by Mr. B. Hall ; but all these species are without fruit, and an exact determination of them is of course impossible.

2 Dcsmatodon flav Leans ranges westward from the Rocky Mountains.

Ii I'oUia subsessilis ranges westward from Illinois. (E. Hall.)

11 Zygodon, Sullivantii Miill. It has never been found in fruit, and is thus a species of doubtful affinity.

** The species of this genus, and also of Macromitrium and Syrrhopodon are tropical. Each of them has still one repre- sentative in Eastern North America. VOL. XIII. — 3

18

ON CAI.IFORNIAN MOSSES.

Whole number of species in each genus.		i — i O) V, -A	■"0 u> « S ft ^	03 .So §| <1	Whole number of speoies lo each genus.		J a 1*	ft 1*	V* "^1
		ww	w»	e			Wpj	ww-	o
No. 41, 5	Schistidium,	2	3	2	No. 62, 4	Physconiitrium,§ .	1	3	1
42, 9	Grimmia, . . .	3	6	3	63, 1	Aphanorlicgma,	1
43, 1	Coscinodon, . . .	1			64, 14	Splachnum, .	1	13
44, 7	Kacomitriuin, . .		7	1	65, 10	Fontinalis, . . .	o	7
45, 1	Ilcdwigia, . . .		1	1	06, 4	Pichelyma, .	2	2
46, 1	Buxbaumia,		1		67, 3	Cryphcea,	8
47, 1	Diphyscium, . .		1		68, 2	Lcucodon, .	2
48, 3	Atrichum, . . .	1	2	1	69, 3	Lcptodon,	3
49, 5	Pogonatum, . .	3	2		70, 1	Antitricliia, . .		1
50, 6	Polytrichmn,		6	2	71, 7	Anomodon, .	3	4
51, 2	Titrmiia,*		2		72, 8	Leskca, ....	3	5
52, 4	Aulacomnium, . .	1	3	1	73, 1	Clasmatodon,	1
53, 30	Bryum, ....	If	29	4	74, 3	Tholia, ....	a
54, 11	Mnium, ....	1	10		75, 1	Myurclla,	l
55, 4	Mccsia, ....		4		76, 5	Fabronia, . .	4	1
56, 1	Amblyodon,J . .		1		77, 1	Anacamptodon,		1
57, 1	Paludclla,		1		78, 3	Pylaiseea, . . .	3
58, 7	Bartramia, .	1	6		79, 1	ITomalotbocium,	1
59, 1	Conostomum, .		1		80, 1	Platygyrium, . .		1
60, 4	Funaria, ....	1	3	2	81, 1	Pterigynandrum, .		1	1
61, 1	Enthostodon,	1			82, 6	Cylindrotliocium, .	5	1

* Timmia Austriaca Iledw. and Bryum Ludwigii Spr. arc new discoveries for our Bryologia. They were collected in 1862, on the Rocky Mountains near Pike's Peak by Mr. E. Hall.

t Bryum. Lescurii Sul., the only Eastern North American species of this genus, is so nearly related to Bryum carncum L., that it might bo considered by some bryologists as an American variety of it.

X Amblyodon dcalbaius P. B. In the Rocky Mountains by Drummond. It was found also near Milwaukic (18C2), by Mr. I. A. Lapham and myself.

# Fhyscomitrium tetragonum Fiirn. was collected in very fine specimens by Mr. fi. Hall in the plains of the Platte River.

ON" CALIFOKNtAN" MOSSES.

19

Whole number of .species in each genus.		t a a .	a o s a <D "Si	4 «31	Whole number of species in each genua.			T2 t-i s a	.si o ,0
		Ww	Wpq	O			Ww	Bh	O
No. 83, 3			8		No. 87, 100	Ilypnum,	34	72	5
84, 3	Omalia, ....	2	1		88, 1	l'ilotrichium,	1
85, 1 80, 2	Hookeria, Climacium, .	1 1	1		89, 1	Metcorium,*	1
Total, 493		152	341	42

This tabic shows the four hundred and ninety-three species of Eastern North America, divided into eighty-nine genera, and distributed thus : one hundred and fifty-two species, or thirty and one-half per cent, belong exclusively to Eastern North America ; three hundred and forty-one species or sixty-nine per cent, are common to Eastern North America and Europe, and only forty-two species or eight and one-half per cent, belong to Eastern North America, Europe, and Western North America. But to give a satis- factory view of the distribution of our North American mosses, this table must be completed by a similar one of the Californian species.

Whole number of		-fe'S Sa	•0 6 § a	Whole number of		y a 13	» a S,<|
species InWestern North America.				*|"'i'iesin Western North America.
		Hi*	wis			^	w^
No. 1, 5	Phascum, ....		5	No. 11, 1	Tctrnphis,		1
2, 2	Gymnostomum, .		2	12, 1	Eaoalypta, . .		1
3, 2	Wcisia, ....		2	13, 2			2
4, 1	Dicranum,		1	14, 1	Zygodon, ....	1
5, 1	Ccratodon,		1	15, 5	Orthotrichum,	2	8
0, 1	Pissidens, ....	1		16, 2	Schistidium, .		2
7, 8	Trichostoinum, .	If	2	17, 5	Grim mi a, ....	1	4
8, 22	Barbula, ....	8	14	18, 1	Racomitrium,		1
9, 2	Dcsmatodon, .		2	19, 1	Ilcdwigia, . . .		1
10, 1	Anaoalypta, . .		1	20, ]	Braunia, ....	1

* These last two genera, like Nos. 34, 38, 39, belong to a tropical flora. Other representatives of these may be found in Florida. f Belonging to Kamtsehatka also.

20

ON CAL1FORN1AN MOSSES.

Whole number of Bpeoies in Wesl em North America.		t a ■85 O V, ■	« a S.1 £^ =j •	Whole number of species in Western North America.		Exclusively AV.X.Amer.	is * a £K 1*
No. 21, 1	Atrichum, . . .		1	No. 30, 1	Physcomitrium, .		1
22, 3	Polytriclmm, . . .	1	2	31, 2	Ptcrogoniuni,		2
23, 1	Pogonatuin, .	1		32, 2	Loskea, ....	1	1
24, 1	Aulacomnium,		1	38, 2	Alsla,	2
25, 11	Bryutn, ....	4	7	34, 1	Ncokcra, ....	I
26, 2	Mnium, ....	2		35, 1	Antitrichia, .	1
27, 2	Bart ram ia, . . •	1	1	36, 1	Fabronia, ....		1
28, 3 29, 1	Funaria, .... Enthostodon, . . ■	1	3	37, 26	Hypnura, ....	15	11
Total, 121		45 .Tfi per cent.	76 02 j per ot,

Our first remark in looking over these tables, is on the scantiness of the Bryological Flora of California, and the small number of genera in which the species arc distributed. Sphagnum, Andrcea,Gamjnjlopus, Didymodon, Meesia,Gnjphcea, Leucodon, Anomodon,Thelia, &c. have, every one of them, a number of representatives in Eastern North America and none in the West. This could be explained perhaps in supposing that we arc still too little acquainted with the mosses of California, and that future researches may bring the discovery of a greater number of species. But from what we know of the climate of that State we must admit, I fear, that this scantiness of mosses is rather real than apparent. The vegetation of the mosses, as everybody knows, is particularly favored by a certain degree of constant humidity, and on the contrary, alternate changes of great humidity and dryness tend to destroy it. Now these last climatic conditions are especially marked in California. Professor William H. Brewer, of the Geological Survey of this State, in a very interesting letter on this subject to Mr. W. S. Sullivant, remarks, that the climate of California is particularly unfavorable to the vegetation of the mosses ; that except a narrow strip near the coast, where the fog which comes in from the Pacific Ocean brings moisture, the supply of mosses is extremely limited. Everywhere cast of the Coast Range;, the cli- mate is so very dry in summer, that no dew is deposited on cold nights. Even on moun- tains of greater altitude, he remarks the same absence of mosses. Professor Brewer as- cended Mount Shasta (altitude 14,400 feet), in September, expecting to find there many Alpine mosses, but found none. Of the Coast Range, which, from its exposure to the fogs of the ocean, is apparently better adapted for the vegetation of the mosses, Mr. Bolander

ON CALIFORNJAN MOSSKS.

21

has explored some parts, and lie makes the same remarks about the scarcity of mosses. On Mount Diablo he found Grimmia vumtana and Braunia on dry rocks, and one or two species only at the bottom of deep canons.

Now looking to the part of Europe to which the Bryologia of California is essentially related, viz., to the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and inquiring into their climatic conditions as related to the vegetation of the mosses, we find them remarkably identical.

W. P. Schimpcr, the greatest of all past and present bryologists, went to Spain some years ago for the purpose of exploring and collecting the mosses of the mountains of that country, especially of the Sierra Nevada. He hoped to find there remarkable and new species, and expected a rich scientific result of his researches. He came back disappointed. The Sierra Nevada of Spain had scarcely any mosses; only those common species found everywhere on dry ground and dry rocks. The high summits of these mountains, covered part of the year by dense fogs, or drenched by diluvial rains, arc in the summer entirely dry and barren. Everywhere, says the celebrated professor of Strasbourg, the naked rocks are exposed to view without any trace of those green carpets of Sphagnum^ Andrcea, Gymnoslomum, Weisia, Dicranum, &c, &c, which cover the constantly-watered declivities of the Swiss Alps, of the Byrenean, and especially of the Dovrofield Mountains of Norway. The same absence of mosses, due to the same climatic conditions, has been remarked also in the Caucasus by Mr. Dubois de Montperrcux, and in Algeria by French botanists. All these countries are about on the latitude of California, and evidently we can trace to a similarity of mere climatic circumstances, the first cause of the extraordinary relation of the bryological vegetation.

The climate of Eastern North America has a greater degree of similarity with that of North and Middle Europe, and we find the same degree of relation in our mosses. We have; especially in common the subalpine species, inhabiting the mountains of New York, of Massachusetts, even the summits of the Alleghany Mountains, and the plain near the northern lakes, exactly following the geographical distribution of the Abies. If this flora of ours is not quite as rich as that of Europe, the reasons arc easily found, 1st. In the ab- sence of a higher group of Alpine mountains, whose influence tends to enrich the vegeta- tion of mountains of second order. 2d. In the predominance of forests in this country, where they cover the subalpine mountains nearly to their highest summits, preventing therefore the differences caused by a variety of habitat and of station. 3d. In the frequent conflagration of these forests, which tends to destroy in part the vegetation of the mosses, and of course to render it more uniform.

But there is still another cause of distribution of the mosses, by which we can explain, not only the relation of forms, but also the differences which characterize the Bryologia of

22

ON CALlFORNfAN MOSSKS.

the North American continent. It is the adaptation of each species of moss to a peculiar habitat. These humble and apparently useless beings have their geological and lithologi- cal preferences far better marked than any other kind of vegetables. They select also to live upon, different species of trees, different substances, the dung of certain animals, the muddy deposits of a peculiar nature, the barren ground or the meadows inhabited by special grasses, old fences, old roofs, old mud walls, &c. This explains, 1st. Why, ac- cording to the tables of distribution, the mosses living on the ground, Gymnostomum., Weisia, Barbula, Desmaiodon, Trichostomum , &c, are generally identical in Europe and on both sides of the North American continent, varying only according to climatic influ- ences ; and also why, when we come to species living on the bark of trees, or to pecu- liar substances, the specific and even the generic differences are manifest. Thus we find in Eastern North America, all the species of Drummondia, Plycliomitrium, Cryphcea, Leu- codon, Leptodon, Glasmalodon, Thelia, Homaloihecium, Pylaismi, and in Western North America, Alsia, exclusively arboreous and exclusively indigenous, most of these genera having not even any specific representative in Europe. In other genera, like OrlhoiricJmm, Anomodon, Leslcea, Cylindrothecmm, Climacium, Ilypnum, we find equally identity or near affinity of forms for the species living on the ground, or on rotten, decomposed sub- stances already nearly transformed into humus, while we have generally specific differences for the truly arboreous species.

There are indeed exceptional cases, apparently tending to weaken the prevalence of this rule. But I think that they might be easily explained if we were well acquainted with the true nature of the substances supporting mosses, and with the local influences which may act sometimes on their distribution. To exemplify this assertion, we may ex- amine a few of those apparent exceptions. All the species of the genus Sphagnum live in bogs, and their existence is apparently depending on water only. We have, neverthe- less, in Eastern North America, eight species different from those of Europe. But the water of the bogs where these mosses* are generally living is more or less impregnated with ulmic acid, resulting from the decomposition of wood, and there may be accord- ingly some chemical influence acting on the distribution of the species. Moreover, most of the exclusively American species of this genus belong to a warmer climate, or to a pa- rallel of latitude where in Europe the destruction or the scarcity of the forests has prevented flu- formation of bogs. We have only two indigenous species: Sphagnum cydophyllum Sid. ck Lcsq. and Sphagnum sedoides Br id., with a northern range of distribution. They live either on the sand, or on granitic rocks, covered with water part of the year and cn-

* According to Professor Schimpcr, the genus Sphagnum docs not belong to the mosses, but to a separate family, the plants having a thallus like the Lichenes, and a conformation of their own.

ON CALIFORNIAN MOSSES.

23

tirely dry in summer. Hence, they periodically disappear, being apparently renewed each year from their thallus, and never reaching their entire development. They bear simple short stems, scarcely branching, and have never been found in fruit. It is evident that their presence, if not their form, is due to peculiar and local circumstances.

In the Phascacece, we have in Eastern North America five exclusively indigenous species of Brucliia. A single species of this genus has been found once only in the Vosges Mountains of Europe, at an altitude corresponding with that of the summit of Mount Marcy (about 6000 feet), on the decomposed dung of cows. Our Bruchia Jlexuosa Schw., whose habitat I had opportunity to closely examine, is found in the spring in large round patches, apparently on the naked clay ground, but really at such places which were for- merly covered by the dung of animals feeding in the meadows. The southern species have probably a habitat of the same kind, being found along the canals on the sand of the tow-paths. If this is the case, the distribution of these mosses is according to the general rule. The dung in various climatic conditions is the local habitation of different species of mosses. Our only true American Splachnea, Tetraplodon Australis Sal. & Lesq., lives in the Southern swamps on the dung of mules.

The Fontinales are always found in water. The number of true American species, either on the east or on the west side of the continent, is pretty large, most of the species being truly arboreous. Indeed, they attach themselves to branches and roots of trees plunging in water, and occasionally only to stone. The few species winch may be called rock species, generally attached to stones, like Fontinalis Dalecarlica Bryol. Eur., are found both in Europe and in Eastern North America.

'five genus Dicranwn shows apparently another kind of anomaly of distribution, that is, identity of forms and variety of habitat. Twenty-seven of our Eastern North American species are the same as in Europe, though some of them arc truly arboreous. All the arboreous ones live on rotten or decayed wood in the spruce region. The other species are mostly inhabiting the stones or the ground in the subalpinc region, or the bogs. Their distribution is thus according to the common rule.

The affinity and also the modifications of forms following the influence of habitat, are better marked perhaps in the distribution of the genus Orthotrichum than in any other. 'Hie species living on rocks, Orthotrichum Sturmii lip p., 0. anomalum Iledw., 0. cupula- turn ltnjf., 0. HutsahmsicB Grev., and also the subalpine arboreous species living on the bark of the spruce and the beech, Orthotrichum Bogeri Brid., 0. speciosum Nees., 0. leio- oarjpum Br. & Schjp., 0. Ludwigii Schw., 0. crispulum Hrech., arc identical in Europe and Eastern North America. On the contrary, the true arboreous species of the plain or of the temperate zone, Orthotrichum cxujuwm Sid., 0. Tcxanam Sal., 0. stramjulatum Beauv., O. Ganadense Br. & Schp., are exclusively indigenous. One of our Orthotricha-

24

ON" CAI/IFORNIAN MOSSES.

ceee only, considered as a variety of Orthotrichum Lycllii, seems to have an exceptional distribution, inhabiting as it does the bark of trees of the temperate zone. This would perhaps prove that this variety, as Hampe will have it, is a true American species. The name of 0. papillosum limp, is well adapted to it.

It would appear that there is in the composition of some stones, peculiar substances which may affect the distribution of the mosses. Two Eastern North American species of Desmatodon live, one exclusively on conglomerate sandstone, the other on old bricks. Our indigenous species of small Fissidens are found also near the water on sandstone, cither rolled in the creeks or cut for constructions, except Fissidens subbaeilaria Medic, a true arboreous species.

It is perhaps to this predilection of some mosses for a peculiar kind of stone, that we owe in our temperate climate the presence oiEusticMum Norvegicum Bryol. Eur., inhabit- ing the conglomerate sandstone of Southern Ohio and Southern Kentucky, and considered by European bryologists as an exclusively northern species.

We might perhaps look for a third cause influencing the geographical distribution of the mosses, in the peculiar tendency of nature of associating in the same region similar forms, nearly allied species or may be varieties. Whatever might be the manner of ex- plaining this grouping, it exists for the mosses far more evidently than for the phamoga- mous plants. Thus wc have here, three species of Cryphcect, two of Leucodon, three of Leptodon, seven of Anomodon, three of Thelia, three of Pylaisaxt, six of Cylindrothecium , and a great number of Hypnum, &c, whose specific characters are sometimes blended together in a way truly perplexing for the examiner. Even these specific differences can be sometimes followed on plants living in close proximity, and their cause apparently traced to natural variations of habitat. The Thelim live generally attached to the smooth bark at the base of both Carpinus Americana Mich, and (Mrya Virginica Willd. Now Thelia hir/ella Sul, with simple papilla; on tire back of the leaves, is found higher on the trunk. When it descends on the uncovered roots and becomes more exposed to the sun, the color is grayish, the papilla; are bilobed at the apex, there is a difference in the peri- stome, and we have indeed another species, Thelia asprella Sid. Southward, in Kentucky and Tennessee, this Thelia asprella is seen sometimes attached to small roots plunging in the sand. From the roots, the moss itself passes to the sand, becomes fixed to the ground, is now different in some characters, areolation and peristome, and a third species, indeed, Thelia Lescurii Sul, apparently clue to the influence of another habitat. Such impercepti- ble changes of forms corresponding with progressive variations, might be followed in the same manner, in other genera, especially in the species of the genus Cylindrothecium. But this examination would be now of small value ; for without long and experimental researches, our belief in the influence of external circumstances of habitat on the form, can be but merely conjectural.

A 11 TIC LE II.

ON TJIE MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY 01? ACCIDENTAL LINGUISTIC RESEMBLANCES.

BY PLINY EAELE CHASE, M. A.

Bead September 18, 1803.

Most of the philological research of our day rests exclusively on a grammatical basis. The results that have been attained by such men as Edwards,* Schlegel, Bopp, and Grimm, cannot be too highly estimated, but their labors have been confessedly restricted within narrow boundaries, and they can be properly regarded only as preliminary, or introductory. The process of grouping languages into families, has already been extended nearly to its utmost practicable limits, and the question of connection between the families themselves, where no grammatical analogy can be discovered, must be solved, if it can be solved at all, by a comparison of radical words or syllables. Such comparisons have fallen into some disrepute for four principal reasons, viz. :

1. The progress of philology has brought to light old national affinities that had been previously unsuspected, showing that instances of supposed dialectic parentage were merely relations of fraternity or consanguinity, and many of the verbal derivations of the early etymologists have been consequently discarded.

2. Radical philology is a new science, and like most new sciences it has sometimes suffered from hasty generalizations, which, added to the occasional mistakes of enthusiasts, have brought undeserved reproach upon the whole study.

3. The natural desire to generalize results, has given rise to crude theories, some of which have been easily overturned, and others have been feebly propped by unsound or inconclusive arguments.

4. An undue importance has been sometimes attached to superficial analogies, and plausible grounds have thus been given to pretentious sciolists, for the summary dismissal of any newly discovered resemblance, by branding it as fanciful or accidental.

Let us give a brief passing glance at each of these points.

1. The old etymologies that have been discarded, have not, thereby, been rendered

* See Haven's Archaeology of the . United States, p. 55, for some remarks on the anticipation of Schlcgel's idea, by Jonathan Edwards and others. VOL. XIII. — 4

2G ON THE MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY

worthless. On the contrary, most of them have gained a new value, since they not only serve to strengthen the most important conclusions of comparative grammarians, but they also furnish a rich mine for the exploration of the searchers after verbal roots. Although it may be demonstrated that a given Latin word was not derived from the Greek, as was once mistakenly believed, the resemblance which led to the mistake1 still remains as an evidence^ of kindred origin, and if it be rightly studied it may help us to useful results. Although the French word suivre is undoubtedly more closely associated with the Latin root sec, than with the Chinese suy, the latter may possibly have arisen from a similar law of verbal detrition.

2. The unfair advantage that lias been taken of the confessed errors of etymologists, will undoubtedly, in time, be followed by a favorable; reaction, and meanwhile it will have little influence in deterring those who are on the lookout for new discoveries. The unfairness is in itself an evidence that the science which is impugned is still in its infancy, and that its held is consequently mostly unexplored. Therefore, as soon as tin; fact becomes established that there is a sun; basis for accurate; research, the great probability of attaining satisfactory results will draw crowds of investigators.

3. Students avIio have devoted themselves the: most earnestly to philology, have been the most thoroughly convinced that all languages exhibit bonds of connection which point to a common origin of some kind. The more profound their research, the deeper does this conviction usually become, and it is no mark of a candid spirit, for erne' whose acquire- ments are not such as to qualify him for pcrtinemt criticism, to charge it to the fascination of a hobby, or of a pet theory* Such a charge might merit consideration, if the con- viction we;rc solitary or exceptional, or if it were1 made the1 main support of a questionable hypothesis. But its approach to universality should be regarded as sufficient <-vi<lene'e; that it is well grounded, while; the1 different reasons that have been imagined by different investigators to explain the connection, show that they have not been led astray by devo- tion to a system. Whether any of their theories be rejected or believed, the facts on which the-y we:re built are incontrovertible1, and deserving of careful scientific investi- gation.

* I am aware that some distinguished scholars, like M. Renan, deny the existence of any traces of linguistic

unity, but such a denial can have little weight with any one who is at all familiar with the profound researches of the German philologists. The a. priori probability that there was a, primitive significance to every syllable, and even to every sound, and that traces of such significance are still to he round in the languages which Max Miiller has classed as "Turanian," is greatly strengthened by a comparison of such dialects as the Chinese, Egyptian, and Yoruban, and it seems to me much more! natural and reasonable to regard identical roots as evidences of family identity, than to attempt to explain their existence in any other way.

OF ACCIDENTAL LINGUISTIC RESEMBLANCES.

27

4. The objection to fanciful or accidental resemblances, while it is the one most frequently urged, is also the most plausible, and I have thought it worthy of a, brief examination, which has led to conclusions surprising even to myself, well prepared as I was, by twenty- five years' study of radical philology, to admit the truths of winch those results are the natural indications. 1 had supposed that an argument on which so much stress is laid, oik- which is urged so often and so triumphantly, must have some claims to respect, but I find that a, purely and strictly accidental coincidence* in sound and sense, is nearly, if not altogether, impossible.

For, in the first place, we must reject from the category of casual resemblance, all words that are determined by fixed and known laws; such, for example, as indicate nothing more Ihan a uniformity of idea, or of vocalization, that is dependent on a uniformity of human nature in its mental and physical constitution, and all words which are clearly or even probably derived from an onomatopeeia. Words of the latter class are probably not so numerous as is often supposed, and. even those which may possibly have had an onomato- poeic source (as e. g. Eng., beef; Fr., boeuf; Lat, bov ; Gr., ,%<_,; Chin., moo), are often so transformed that their origin can only be made evident by a series of connected deriva- tions, which serve to strengthen a, conviction in the original family union of nations that are now most widely separated.

Fetus them suppose that in two languages Which we wish to make the subjects of comparison, all words of a, merely imitative character, and all other analogues that could be reasonably referred to uniformity of organization, have been discarded. Suppose, moreover, that for other quasi-accidental and unknown reasons, there still remains a degree of resemblance so incredible that there is a precise correspondence between all tin- ideas represented in the two languages, and a, correspondence equally precise in the sound of two-thirds of the words that they employ. Still, tin; word thai; denotes hoi/ in one language, wdl be more likely to denote horse, or anything else rather than boy, in the other, and a single instance of merely fortuitous coincidence will be improbable. If the resemblance is still more striking, so that together with the correspondence of ideas, there is a, precise agreement in the sound of all the syllables and words, then; will probably be a, single coincidence, and no more.

Some of the resnlts of the following discussion have been anticipated by Dr. Thomas Young (Phil. Trans., 1819, p. 7!), sqq.), but the importance of the subject seemed suffi- cient to warrant a, more general investigation.

ii the present paper, I use the term coincidence, merelj to denote words in two different languages which agree both in sound and meaning.

28

ON THE MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY

We will first examine the simplest case, in which there arc m identical words, and m identical meanings in the two languages.

Suppose the words arc similarly arranged in each language. Then, among the possible permutations of the meanings, there is only one in which they will all coincide, and none in which m — 1 will coincide.

If all but two coincide, those two must change places. There arc, therefore, as many

such arrangements as we can make selections of 2 out of m, or, m ■ \?"" •

If all but three coincide, those three must change places in such a way that neither will occupy its original place. This can be done in two ways with each group of 3, and there are, therefore, twice as many such arrangements as the number of selections that we can

make of 3 out of m, or, 2 x ~~

Tabulating: and differencing these results, it will be seen that the number of arrange-

ments in which there are n displacements out of m, is A" 0! The value of this expression can be readily ascertained, for

>— »+') w!

A" 0!=

n! "01

mA"- ]0!=

n \ , " IT 27

n\ n 1 , n\ . ( Vl+1.1

Ol 1 1 21

Hence, by subtraction,

A" 0 ! = nA"-1 0 ! ( — )"' 1

ml

There will .\ be m displacements, or 0 coincidences, in Am 0!= "7=.36788 ml arrangements, leaving for the probability of one or more coincidences, .63212 ml out of ml possible; arrangements, — which is a probability of about t. There will, therefore, probably be at least one coincidence.

There will also be m — 1 displacements, or 1 coincidence, in .36788 ml arrangements. Deducting this amount from .63212 ml there remains only a chance of t%%%%% for more than one coincidence. If the words, and also the meanings, were identical in two languages, there would .-. probably be 1 accidental coincidence, and no more, as stated above.

In order to investigate the other supposed case, it will be necessary to consider the more general expression, A" ml, the value of which can Ik; conveniently ascertained in two ways. For,

An m ! = An (1 + A)'"' 0 !

( A n m /\ n+ 1 j_ m (m— 1) /yn+2 ^ Am+ j 01 + 1 !

m (m— 1) ^n+2 2!

"}

01

0)

or, A0 m\ = m\ A1 tn ! =)7i.77i !

A2 m ! ==m A'+ A + A'. (m+1) A' + A.

A A'

A"

OF ACCIDENTAL LINGUISTIC RESEMBLANCES.

29

A:! m ! (m+l) A" + A' + A" + A' = (m+2) A"+2A'.

A" m ! (m.+n — 1) A"—1 in !+ (n — 1) A"- -

in !

(2)

If we compare two languages in which there are rn identical meanings, and only in — n identical words, there will evidently be no arangements that admit of rn, m — 1, ...m — n+1 coincidences.

The rn — n words will retain their position in n ! arrangements.

There will be m — n — 1 coincidences in a«! x (m — n) arrangements. And, generally, there will be— H Ar n\ arrangements, which admit n+r displacements, or

Am~""M ! arrangements in which there will be rn displacements, and 0 coincidences.

In order to ascertain when the chance of a coincidence is less than i, and therefore cease to be a probability, we have

Am-nnl >lAiOi. 0r,by(l)

>A'"'--»0!+(')ti Am~ "+i 0!+

" ()!

A'

-10! + A™0!

The ratio of n to rn that will satisfy this inequality, may be found by making y=Am 0 \+n Am" " 0 !+ . . . &c. Assuming 10 as a convenient value for in, extending the right hand number to four or five terms, and solving the equation, we obtain the corres- ponding value, «==3.185; or, as the ratio is independent of any particular values, n= .3185 rn. rn — ra.=.6815 rn.. /. If the number of identical words is less than .6815 of the entire number of words in each language, any accidental coincidence would be improba- ble. Q. E. I).*

The likelihood is not changed by any possible multiplication of the number of distinct ideas that a language may contain. For, if there are mn separate notions, to be repre- sented by n words, while each word will have an average of m meanings, the probability oi any single meaning being assigned to any particular word, is — . This is precisely equi- valent to , which is the like probability when the number of notions is only n.

On the other hand, an increase in the number of meanings manifoldly increases the

As a case in point, I would refer to the Cherokee alphabet. lis inventor, Sequoia, had seen our alphabet, but was ignorant of the phonetic value of any of the oharaoters. He modified the forms of F, 0, Q, U, and V, and employed, without any alteration, all the other letters except N and X, using each letter to represent a syllable. Only one of his oharaoters has a value at all resembling our own ; the letter L, which stands for the syllable tle. I his half-coincidence admirably exemplifies the oaloulated probability that there would be one coincidence and no more, and the equally divided chance between a single coincidence and no coincidence. The alphabet in question is given in Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes, vol. 2, p. 228.

30

ON THE MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY

probability of a common origin, when the words compared present a coincidence in more than one of their meanings. For, if the concurrent meanings are apparently derived from a single primitive, we have the case which has been long and generally recognized as strengthening the evidence of family connection,— the case of parallelism in thought, which comes next in point, of importance to parallelism in grammatical forms ; while, if the mean- ings are radically distinct, the probability of each successive coincidence is diminished in a geometrical ratio, the chance of a second being only i, — and of rn simultaneous coincidences, only '„,. Therefore, although it is desirable to ascertain the primitive or radical signifi- cation of words, before instituting a comparison, it is not absolutely essential, neither is it even so important as it is often thought.

But what can be said of synonymes X is it not probable that when the number of verbal equivalents becomes large, the number of accidental resemblances will be proportionally large! Here, if anywhere, is the stronghold of the believers in casual similitudes, but even hen; their position may be easily assailed.

Granting, as before, for the influence of known and unknown laws, that two given languages represent the same ideas, and are also homonymous, the meanings being allotted, to the several words at random, let us further suppose that each idea, is attached to m synonymes in each language, the entire number of words being v. If the synonymes of a given idea in one language are «, /S, y, — im we shall still have no probable grounds to ex- pect that either of these words will represent the same idea in the other. For the chance of the given idea being represented by any single word in the other language being -' the chance of its being represented by some one of the m homonymous words is -, which does not become a probability until m > '', a degree of synonymy that is wholly incredible.

Finally, if the in words in the first language are not only synonymes of a, single idea, but perfect equivalents that may be taken indiscriminately, each of the words a, b, c, ...h/, being defined by the same set of ideas, a, /3, y, . . p., the chance ot a coincidence between some one of the m ideas and either of the m homonyms in the other language, would be — , which becomes a probability when m uM* But even m that case, the chance of a second coincidence on the same word, would be only "V[ ' which is less than a probability.

That the change of form which the words of every living language are constantly under- going, has no effect on the probability of accidental resemblance, is evident from the fact that all our reasonings have been of the most general character, and they may be ap- plied to any languages whatever, without regard to their family relationship, their present

* There would still hardly bo a likelihood of more thnn one coincidence among all the homonyms. _For the chance of such a, coincidence would be indicated bym x"'/, which docs not, become a probability until m (n) I

OF ACCIDENTAL LINGUISTIC RESEMBLANCES.

31

or past condition, their relative antiquity, or any other incidental circumstances. When- ever, therefore, in the course of our linguistic comparisons, we discover any marked simi- larity both in sound and sense, it may safely be assumed that the resemblance is not acci- dental, but that it results from the operation of some adequate cause. Although, in many cases, that cause cannot be positively ascertained, we may often satisfy ourselves as to it's probable character.

lor example, let the subject of comparison be the Chinese Mandarin root ma(g, or mi{g, which denotes » great,, vast, confused, mixed," and other similar meanings." As ana- logues, we find in Sanscrit ma,h, to grow; mall, to honor; ma'h, to measure; macf, to collect, to fill, to mix ; with the derivatives mahat, great, mighty, &c. ; in Greek, Mrrmov, „Ari„, ^ />.ax/,uq> ,,Axa, ,,.{Ya~, fiiyuufit, /u$ • in "Latin, mag ister, magnus, misc, mix, majestas, mango; in Gothic, miclceh; Ang. Sax., maegn, micel, mucel; Swedish, mycken ; Scotch, mekyl, muckle, myche; Spanish, mucho; English, mingle, mongrel, mix, much; in old Egyptian, mah, to fill ; mak, to rule. The common ancestry of the Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and Gothic dia- lects, is now generally admitted, while the affinity of the Chinese is still a mooted ques-

tion- The d'l"l,',' for iX merely fortuitous resemblance in the Chinese radical, may be determined in the following mariner.

There are in the Mandarin dialect, eighteen initial sounds, seven which may be cither medial or final, and only four which can. be used as final in connection with a, medial The respective Chances of accidental concurrence on the several sounds are, therefore, ■ , !,and h and the chance that the concurrent sounds should be similarly arranged, is >, |. The chance of the entire coincidence is only frxjxjxj ,,?„, and it is, therefore, morally certain that the resemblance is not accidental.

The efficient causes which are most frequently set forth to explain such resemblances, are those which have already been intimated, viz.: 1. Uniformity of physical organization; 2. Uniformity of mental action; 3. Imitative nomenclature, or onomatopoeia; 4. Affilia- tion of languages. The first may be deemed sufficient to account for a resemblance in the elementary sounds, and the second for a similarity of ideas, but neither separately nor in combination is it easy to conceive of their determining the assignment of special sounds to the expression of special ideas.

■There is no plausible onomatopoetic explanation for any portion of the word except the broad vowel a, which, if we set aside as being thus sufficiently accounted for, the chance of casual coincidence is increased to ,,,', r-H Ti«- Although it is possible, and perhaps even probable, that the other sounds may also have been primitively onomatopoetic, we have no nght to take it for granted that they were so; and even if they were, the fact would either diminish any probability of a common origin that might be advocated on other grounds, nor would it explain the precise arrangement of sounds which has been adopted.

32

ON THE MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY

There would still remain an odds of five to one against that particular arrangement, which might be readily and most satisfactorily overcome, by supposing that the root in question had been handed down to each language from some older and extinct dialect. That this is the true solution of the problem, is rendered still more likely by the following conside- rations.

1. Although the Chinese is entirely destitute of grammatical inflections, and it is, there- fore, impossible to subject it to any grammatical comparisons, except such as are merely syntactical, its syntax, as Chev. l'mnsen has demonstrated, is clearly of the Aryan type.

2. The Mandarin dialect has no final gutturals, but the terminal 4g is often replaced by a "uttural in the other dialects. Thus, the mandarin word pa(g, to bind, to tie, becomes pak in Hok-Keen, and is thus naturally associated with Sanscrit pag, paf, Greek, ™r~ xax—mfrv—, Latin, pang, pac, pax, Gcr., Eng., and Sw., pack, in the same way that mag is connected with a ,Mx-,i,.er- ma;/—, magn—, &c* IIok-Keen being in the southeast quarter of the: Chinese empire, closer resemblance to the Aryan forms would naturally be; expected, and the discovery of that resemblance greatly strengthens the probability of a common origin.

3. The broad vowels air often degraded in Chinese, as well as in the Aryan languages. E. g., pa4g, ma,g, become respectively pi,g, mi(g, without losing their primitive meaning or producing any change except a greater specialty of apYdication. So in Latin, pang-o, vm- ping-o; English, rnong-rel, ming-le.

4. The Mandarin root ma, to add to, to increase, which may either be the primitive from which ma g was derived, or an abbreviated form of the latter word, is found in v/,l„.. The double sense of greatness and seniority, is common both to Latin major, and Chinese

mag

From the cumulative evidence that I have thus briefly presented, I am unable to draw any other conclusion than that the Chinese and Aryan words here given, have a, common origin. And finding, as 1 do, that comparisons equally striking, can be made with nearly every Chinese root, I can readily believe, with Bunsen and others, that the Chinese is the oldest language of which we have any record, " the monument of antediluvian speech."

I have purposely based my calculations upon assumptions the most favorable that I could imagine, for the production of abnormal resemblances. Every deviation in any of the hypothetical postulates, such as new evidence of pre-historical national intercourse, an increase in the number of similar roots which are traceable in different families of languages, well-sustained philosophical generalisations which lead to just methods of philological study, the discovery of a new law of verbal derivation or transformation, while it may have some tendency to complicate the problem, has a, still greater tendency to render its

* The Hok-Keen word mi.g, an incantation, similarly serves to connect the root ma,g, with (idyr*

avnv, magus

&c.

<)V ACCIDENTAL LINGUISTIC RESEMBLANCES.

33

further investigation unnecessary, because it diminishes, in a rapidly increasing ratio, the chances for merely accidental analogies.

We may, therefore, safely assume that any single coincidence in words of two or more syllables, or any two coincidences in radical syllables, furnish almost irresistible evidence of a. national intercourse to which the coincidence is attributable. The presumption is greatly increased by every additional coincidence of either kind, and if the concurrence is frequent, or if it extends alike to derivatives and primitives, the hypothesis of mere national intercourse, by commerce or conquest, becomes less satisfactory, and it is difficult to imagine any sufficient explanation other than a common genealogy. As there are no two known languages which are destitute of a large number of such coincidences, the d posteriori evidence of a unity of language appears to be stronger than that of a, unity of race.

Any considerable number of accidental coincidences being, as we have shown, not only improbable but morally impossible, the reasonable effort of a just philosophy, whenever they occur, is to search for some law by which they can be satisfactorily explained. By such a, search, carefully conducted, philology may gradually be placed on a "positive" basis. It is certain that no adequate explanation has yet been offered for the various linguistic phenomena, except that which is based on common descent, and if none other should be found hereafter, the believers in the specific unity of man, whether upon scriptu- ral, historical, psychological, or mere philosophical -rounds, may well be gratified at such strong confirmation of their views.

voi„ \in.

AETICLE III.

ON TIIH COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY OF THE YORUliA LANOHAdH

B V PI [ N V V,.\ R I, E 0 II A S E

Bead September 18, 1863.

L I 8 T 0 F AUTHOR I T 1 E S .

Bowen, T. ,) . Grammar and Dictionary of the 5Toruba Language.

Bunse.v, 0. J. Egypt's Place in Universal History. Ed. 18-18.

ITayden, h\ V. Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley

Marsh, George P. Notes and Additions to Wedgewood's Dictionary.

Morrison, li,., Dictionary of the Chinese Language.

Muller, Max. Leotures <>n the Science of Language. First Amor. Ed.

PrIOHAHD, Dr. J. C. Natural History of Man. 3d London Ed.

RrGGS, S. R. Grammar and Dictionary of the Dakota Language.

Tooke, Horne. Diversions of Purley.

Wedgewood, Hensleigh. Dictionary of English Etymology. 1st Amer. Ed, Vol.1.

A B I! R E V 1 A T I 0 N S.

A. Arabic. Arm. ArmoriOi A. S. Anglo-Saxon. Bl. Blaokfoot.

C. Chinese. Co. Coptic. Cr. Crow. I). Dakota. Dn, Danish.

Du. Dutch. Eg. Egyptian. Eng. English. P. French. Fi. Finnish. G. German. Ga. Gaelic. Go. Gothic

Gr. Greek. 11. Hebrew.

1. Italian.

to. Icelandic

1.0. 1 ndo ( J-ermanic

lr. Irish . L. Latin. P. Pawnee.

S. Sanscrit. Sc. Scotch. Sh. Shyenne. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. T. Turkish. W. Welsh. Y. Yoruba.

1. If the rea aing

is correct, by which I have attempted to demonstrate the improba- bility of accidental resemblances in language, our next question will naturally be, what are the probable causes of the resemblances that we find actually existing between dialects the most, widely separated, spoken by nations between whom there has been no historical intercourse '.

2. Various hypotheses have been framed in answer to this inquiry, but as none of them, are so general and satisfactory as that of family affinity, they are deserving, merely as hypotheses, of but little consideration. Even granting them all the importance that their

36

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

advocates ran possibly claim, and setting aside everything for which their explanation is admitted to he sufficient, there1 still remains an unsolved residuum, which can be accounted for only on the simple and all-sufficient supposition of a common origin.

3. But, however satisfactory any hypothesis may be, the need of stronger assurance will be constantly felt, and every road that promises any approximation to certainty, should be carefully explored. The three obvious avenues for research in language, are, 1. Historical intercourse between nations, by conquest, colonization, or commerce; 2. Resemblance in verbal forms, whether radical or derivative; 3. Analogies in grammatical inflection and construction. All immediate, or derivative etymology, is based upon the evidence of national intercourse, while all comparative, as well as all radical etymology, rests on the formal resemblances and normal differences of words. Grammatical analogy, when strongly marked, furnishes nearly demonstrative evidence of a common lineage, and it should, there- fore, be the first object of search in all philological comparisons.

4. If the grammatical resemblance is decided, it adds great weight to (-very verbal re- semblance- ; if it is feeble, doubtful, or entirely wanting, it has hitherto been often assumed that coincidences of sound and meaning may be accidental. I have endeavored to show that this assumption is entirely groundless. The- absence of inflectional counterparts, can, at the best, prove no more than that there has been no family intercourse since the inflec- tions were established; and it is difficult to understand why more weight should be given to mere verbal identity or similarity in one case than in another, or why different explana- tions should be sought at different times for resemblances of the same character.

5. The early etymologists generally pursued their inquiries under an impression that the parent language was still extant. The honor of parentage has been successively attri- buted to Hebrew, Chinese, Egyptian, and Sanscrit, but these successive claims have all been strenuously disputed, and the believers in radical primitives no longer confine their investigations to a single channel. Still, the question of the relative antiquity of languages retains its interest, and every new discovery of collateral evidence that has even an indirect, bearing on the question, is eagerly welcomed.

(J. Tin- publication of Bowen's Yoruha Grammar and Dictionary, in the Smithsonian Contributions of 1858, lias furnished to comparative philologists a new and valuable The- saurus of radical words and primitive grammatical forms, the study of which may, per- haps, do much towards removing the difficulties that have hitherto impeded the progress of philological science.

7. The Yorubas occupy a portion of Western Africa lying between 2° and 7° E. long., and between (i° and 9° :}()' N. lat. Their territory is bounded on the north by Barba and Nufe, east and southeast by the Niger and Benin, south by the Gulf of Benin, and west by Dahomey and Mahi. They are usually black, and have woolly hair, but individuals

OF THE TORUBA LANGUAGE.

37

arc sometimes met with " who are fully as light-colored as the American Indians. This color ishereditary in certain families ; and it is a curious fact that, although it may seem to he lost, it sometimes reappears in subsequent generations. Individuals of this color are found not only among the Yorubas and other tribes of the interior, but among the Iboes, and even among the Kroomen. They axe called 'red men' in Africa, though their color is not exactly that of Indians, nor yet of mulattoes, and is something wholly distinct from albinism. Several entire; tribes of red men axe found in the interior. The people of Uorin spoke of a tribe of pastoral people called Alabawo, ' 1 Iide-wearcrs,' who are said to be decidedly light- colored. They build no towns, but live in leather tents, which they pitch in the form of a circular village, and remove from place to place for the sake of pasturage.

8. "It seems reasonable to suppose that the red men among the Yorubas bad the same origin as the red Pulohs and other red tribes of the interior. On the other band, it is unnecessary to refer the light color of these people to climate, or to other conjectural causes, when we have good evidence that an extensive amalgamation of the black and white races has taken place in the countries where most of the mulattoes are now found. We may admit in advance that some of the evidence of this amalgamation maybe spurious or doubtful. For instance, King Belo, of Sokoto, may be mistaken, when he asserts in bis history of Takroor that Bornu was peopled by an Egyptian colony. Still it is undeni- able that a, strong Caucasian intermixture extends from the Red Sea through Nubia and Darfur to the Shoas, southwest of Lake Tsad; and it is just here, at the last-named point, that we first meet with the red Pulohs, who extend through Hansa, Bambara, &c, to

the Senegal and the Atlantic Ocean It is a curious fact that some of the Pulohs at

Ilorig are lighter colored, and more of the white man in every respect, than any half-blood mulatto I have ever seen either in America or Africa."*

i). That the ancient inhabitants of Yoruba had commercial intercourse with Egypt, is rendered almost certain by the fact that " segi," a kind of ancient Egyptian beads, are dug from the earth at Ife and other places. King Belo's assertion renders it probable that the rrd Pulohs may be descended from the red race of nobles that is depicted in the Egyptian monuments, and in my opinion this probability is increased by the certain antiquity of the red race in America,, by the apparent association, among many ancient nations, between the ideas of man and redness,f by the leather tents of the Alabawo, which may indicate

:,c Bowen's Grammar and Dictionary of the Yoruba language, pp. xiv-xv. I am indebted to Mr. Bowcn's work for all my information respeoting the Yorubas and their language.

t '''■ ,'/■> DIN'; Egyptian, ruma, rt, man; r, (denoting redness or brilliancy), in the words that signified euti, evening, heat, to /nun, a /lower ; SToruba, okonri, man; obiri, woman; (ako re, the red male; obi re, the red female;) Dakota, widas'ta, man; (m6B,,male; &'&,red; stag, or s't&t), purple, dark;) G-r., &v6p-<aitos ? Clarkson, in his "Essay on the Slavery and Commerce ol the Human Species" (3d Ed., Phila., 1787, p. 120), gives plausi-

38

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

an etymological connection between the Hebrew ro and Yoruba bata, a hide, by the Yoruba traditions,* and by the marvellous grammatical affinity (which I believe no one has previously noticed), that exists between the Yoruba, Egyptian, and Coptic languages. This confirmed probability adds so great weight to one of the strongest arguments in favor of linguistic unity, that I cannot refrain from quoting, in this connection, Max Miiller's admirable statement of that argument.

10. "Now, if wo consider the large number of tongues spoken in different parts of the world, with all their dialectic' and provincial varieties, if we observe the great changes which each of these tongues lias undergone in the course of centuries, bow Latin was changed into Italian, Spanish, Provencal, French, Wallachian, and Roumansch; how Latin again, together with Greek, and the Celtic, the Teutonic, and Slavonic languages, together like- wise with the ancient dialects of India, and Persia, must have sprung from an earlier language, the mother of the whole Indo-European or Aryan, family of speech; if we see how Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriae, with several minor dialects, are but different impressions of one and the same common type, and must, all have flowed from the same source, the original language of the Semitic race; and if we add to these two, the Aryan and Semitic, at least one more well-established class of languages, the Turanian, comprising the dia- lects of the nomad races scattered over Central and Northern Asia,, the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic, all radii from one common centre of speech; if we watch this stream of language rolling on through centuries in these three mighty arms, which, before they disappear from our sight in the far distance, clearly show a convergence towards one common source: it would seem, indeed, as if there were an historical life inherent in language, and. as if both the will of man and the power of time could tell, if not on its substance", at least on its form."f

11. The third of these "mighty arms," appears to have had a pre-Semitic branch, which traversed the whole breadth of Africa. The researches of Champollion, Lepsius, Bunsen, and others, have demonstrated the Turano-Semitic affinities of the monumental Egyptian, and Mr. Bowen's work enables us to discern widely extended ramifications of those affinities which were previously unknown.

ble reasons for supposing that the original complexion of man was olive, and that the change has been in one

direction to brown ami white; and in the other, to red and black.

"White, ) .-.,. f Copper, Brown, j ' ( black.

* "Tim traditions of the Yoruba people as to the orjgin of their tribe, arc obscure and contradictory. They generally affirm that, mankind wen; created at lie, a considerable town in the eastern part of the Yoruba country. Sometimes they speak of lie as being four months' journey distant,, as though the present town of that, name were confounded with some other place, of which the people retain an obscure traditional recollection. ... 1 have been informed by some intelligent natives, that, the 5Toruba people once lived in Nufe, beyond the Niger." — Bowen, p. xv.

j Lectures on the Science of Language. First American Edition, pp. 12—3.

OF T1IK YORUBA LANGUAGE.

39

12. The Yoruba language, "which is surprisingly rich in abstract terms,"* is of a very early Turanian, or agglutinative type. To me it seems little less than miraculous, that a barbarous people should have1 so long retained in its entire speech, the clear traces of its whole radical vocabulary, and with so little appearance of phonetic decay.

13. "The primitive words of the Yoruba language, amounting in all to about five hundred, consist of the following classes:

"1. Personal and other pronouns.

" 2. About one hundred and sixty verbs, several of which an; obsolete.

"3. About two hundred, and fifty nouns, including several which are clearly exotics.

"4. A few particles, as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

"The remainder of the language, amounting to at least fifteen thousand vocables, has been built up on this foundation, childly by prefixing personal pronouns to verbs to form nouns, and by the union of nouns with verbs and prepositions.

14. "Tin- primitive verbs are all monosyllables, and most of them are of the simplest possible form, consisting of a, single consonant, simple or compound, and a vowel, either pure or nasal.

"A few monosyllabic verbs' begin with two consonants; as, mbe, to he; nla, to he large, &c. These, however, are secondary forms. •. . . .

" The verbs of two syllables arc; all either derivatives or exotics

"Very few of the exotic words have come to the Yoruba people through tin1 Arabic; and it is remarkable that some words of undoubted Eastern origin are unknown among the tribes further in the interior."f

15. "There arc three primary tones, the middle, the acute, and the grave; as ba, to melt; ba, with; and ba, to hend. The middle is the ordinary tone of the; voice without inflection; the acute and grave tones are simply the rising and falling inflections of elocu- tionists. In the Yoruba language, however, they are employed to distinguish words which are spelled alike, but have different meanings. Thus, the two words obe, sauce, and obe, a knife,X are quite different to the ear, when uttered with the proper tones. The tones, though simple in theory, are difficult for us to seize, and require close attention. "§

16. In all the; particulars here enumerated, more especially in the monosyllabic character and simple form of the primitive verbs, and in the peculiar intonation, there is so striking an analogy to the genius of the Chinese language, that any additional evidence of affinity between the two dialects, instead of awakening any surprise, might be readily received as the fulfilment of a natural expectation. In one respect, the Yoruba is the simpler language, for the only suffix that It admits for the vowel of any syllabic, is the guttural nasal i, while

* Bowen, p. xx.

;|; We also speak of a, sharp sauce, as well as of a sharp knife.

f Ibid., pp. 10-11. § Bowen, p. 5.

40

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

the Chinese allows the employment either of the guttural nasal, or of the dental nasal, n. This difference, however, is so slight, that it does not materially affect the general parallel- ism of structure, but the two dialects stand side by side, as the best living representatives of the earliest types of speech, as well as of the rudiments of dialectic variation.*

17. The following pronominal or demonstrative elements, are found in Yoruba, viz. : a, c, h °, w, y, m, n, ,., k, t (and perhaps s, in the verb sa, to aim or point at).

1. Foi the pronoun of the first person ; a, i, o, m, ,,, w. E. g., emi, mo, mi, D, /; &, awa, we; Cfr. ifU, mick, me, -we, nos, ego, — o, — m; Chin., wo, go or ngo; Egypt.,f a, u, anek, or anuk; Copt., anok, anak, anog ; lleb., anokhi, i; S., aha,, vaya,.

2. For the pronoun of the second person, e, i, o, w, y. E. g , iwo, o, thou; e, e5yi5, ye. Cfr., ye, vos; S., tva„ yuya,.

3. For the pronoun of the third person; a, i, y, o, w, n, n. E. g., on, o, i, yi, a, lie, she, it; a, awoij, nwo,,, they. Cfr., ,;,,;?, he; Egypt, u or f; Hob., hit, hv, o.

4. For the indefinite pronouns; n, t, k, y, r. E. g., na, that, the name, the; ni or eni, one, person, this, that, the; ta> who? ti, who, which, that; ka5, one; k or ok, the ordinal prefix; ki ( what? ki, (conj.) that; yi or eyi, this; re, his, her, its, thy, him, thee. Cfr., Egypt., anuk, entek, cnta, entuf, entus, ek, et, su, se, es, ten, sen, &c; Sans., sa, tad, yad, tyad, etad, idam, ki,.

18. The number of pronominal elements, and the consequent number of their possible combinations, is so great, that one- may be easily inclined, though "convinced against his will" of its intrinsic improbability, to bring forward the old argument of possible acci- dental resemblance, lint such an inclination can hardly remain after a study of the com- parative grammatical structure of the verbs in the Yoruba and Egyptian languages, which have the following features in common.

19. "The infinitive is the pure root Now this root expresses at once all the per- sons, whether the subject precede, or, as is more commonly the case [in Egyptian], the sentence begin with the verb. %

20. "Through all the variations of person, number, mood, and tense, the verbal root remains unchanged. §

* Dr. Prichard, in his Natural History of Man (3d London ed., p. 551), refers to the wide diffusion through Northern Africa, of tribes bearing an unquestionable affinity in language to the Syro-Arabian or Shemite race, lie also notices the fact that the resemblances, especially in grammatical structure, are approximations not to the modern but to the most ancient dialects of the .Semitic family. If the Chamitio resemblances should prove to be equally striking, African comparative philology may perhaps furnish the experimentum cruets that will finally settle the mooted question of linguistic unity. I give on a subsequent page some interesting comparisons with Dr. P.'g collection of South Sea Island words.

f liunsen's Egypt's Place in Universal History. Ed. 1848, vol. 1, p. 28.'!.

% Bunsen, vol. 1, p. 204. § See Bowen, p. 27 sqq., and Cfr., Bunsen, vol. 1, p. 294 sqq.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

41

21 "Person and number are denoted by the form of the personal pronoun that repre- sents the subject; E. g. :

"emi ri (Egypt., man* a), I see ; awa ri (Egypt., man en), we see.

22. "The modes and tenses arc indicated by auxiliary particles placed before [or after] the verb. The whole difficulty of the verb lies in the position and meaning of those parti- cles ; and thus the intricacies usually found in the inflexions of the verb are here trans- ferred, as it were, to the department of syntax.

23. "There is but one conjugation, and [there arc] no irregular verbs; all verbs being varied in the same manner.

24. "The use of n or m in [Yoruba] conjugation, is to denote a continuing or unfinished action, or one which was unfinished at the time referred to." "To form the past tense (or perfect definite) in Egyptian, en is introduced between the subject and verb."

25. The future, in Egyptian, is formed by an r, or simply an (Copt, e), "esse versus," like the Italian "essere per," prefixed to the root. The same tense is formed in Yoruba. by prefixing o to (lie root. Bowen thinks that this o was originally the personal pronoun, and that the expression emi o ri, I shall see, means literally, / am he to see. It seems to me more probable that o is an abbreviation of the Yor. substantive verb wa Egypt, an, winch is perhaps, in its turn, the root of av or ah in habere, aver, avoir, (est mini = habeo). The close coincidence of the demonstrative roots in Yoruba, with the various elements of the substantive verb, reconciles this opinion with that of Bowen, and also shows an identity of structure in the Egyptian, Yoruba, and Coptic futures, as well as in the French aur-ai (avr-al), and Italian avr-o.f

2(>. The optative is formed in Yoruba by the particle ma (Chinese mang; Ger., mag ; Eng., may), in Egyptian by mai. Both in Yoruba and Egyptian this particle expresses desire, as well as permission and possibility, as in the Latin ma-lo, Ger., mag ich, Eng., may /, and apparently for a similar reason. I great to go, may as fitly express an ardent wish, as I long to go.

27. "This form of expression [the optative] is much employed instead of the imperative, as being more courteous; as, ma. kuro, thou mayest git mil <>/ my icay; 6 mayara,ye may make haste." The Yoruba, imperative has three forms : 1. The simple root, as in English; ri, or iwo ri, see, or see thou; 2. The root preceded by ma, as in Egyptian; ma ri, or iwo

* The root ri, is found in the Egyptian iri, eye, but I know of no authority for its use in that language as a veil). The Egyptian matt, and the Chinese muh (Morrison, 7803), may be cognate. " In Coptic, as in Yoruba, the pronoun precedes the verb.

f The views here expressed are confirmed by the fact that the Y. verbs 'i, ni, ri, are used both in the sense of to be, and to have, and that the verb wa, to be, is used in the formation of the past perfect; e. g., emi wa ri, Iwas seeing, or I saw. Bowen saya (Gram. p. 85), "the verb wa, to be, is used in all tenses; but there is a tendency to restrict it to the past." Cfr. K. was, L. -vi. vor,. xin. — 6

42

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

ma ri; 3. The root preceded by the conjunction and pronoun (Cfr., Lat., vidcas, utvideae); ki o ri, or ki o ma ri, that thou see, or that thou may see. The conjunction and pronoun are sometimes reduplicated, e. g. ; ki iwo ki o ma ri, that thou that thou may see.

28. There are no participles except the verbal nouns, which are formed by the combina- tion of the verbal root with the demonstrative elements. In Yoruba, the perfect participle is often represented by a verb with the prefix rj; by ki, that, and a verb, — or by a verb used impersonally; as, igi ti a gbig {tree which they planted), a tree planted. The German ge, may perhaps be cognate with one of the first two forms, and the Latin -tus, Egypt., -to, -et, ente-, with the third.

2i). There is no proper form for the passive, but its meaning is expressed by various circumlocutions.

30. Presuming that this striking coincidence of grammatical forms will be deemed sufficient to prove that the affinity of Yoruba to Egyptian is even closer than to the Shemitic languages, and that we may, therefore, reasonably expect to obtain new lights for Egyptology and primitive philology from its careful study, I will give a few examples to illustrate its use in radical etymology.*

31. Dr. Prichard has brief vocal) ularies of South Africanf and Polynesian languages, % from which I select the following common words:

32. Man. — 1, mtu (plur., watu) ; 2, mutu (atu) ; 3, mundu (andu) ; 4, aito ; 5, mtu ; (>, uhmto; 7, motu; 8, mantu; 9, moontau; 10, mondu; Cfr. Dakota, mdoka; Egypt., ha; Chin., kung; Yor.,ako; {nio, guardian) . v. Father.

33. Woman. — 1, mtumke; 2, mutshetu; 3, muka; 4, endangili ; 5, mficrc ; G, umfasi; 7, massari; 8, make, mekonquc ; 9, kentou, quinto ; 10,kentu. These words, like kindred terms in other languages, appear to be generally derived from the masculine terms by add- ing a root (k, g, h, sh, s, or f), expressive of gestation. Cfr. Yor., ka, to fold; ba, to haul, to hind; bi, to beget, to bear ; bo, to cover ; abo, a female, a bag ; obi, a parent, female; Dak., wi, to wrap around; wi, woman, female ; Eg. s, she ; sak, sna, to bind, to bend; sapi, to form, to create (scliaffen, shape) ; [b is also used in Egyptian words that denote bending, and baah = Yor., obo, pudendum']. Chin., foo, to stoop, hush, store-house, wife ; the female in nature • we or wci, to tie, to surround, a handsome woman; Lat., foemina ; Eng., womb, woman, wife ; Ger., weibe.

34. Father. — l,2,4,baba; G,bao; 3,atza; 5,dadi; 7,raacho; 8,tcte; 9, tata,bantu;

* For a resume of tlic general evidences of affinity between the languages of Eastern and Western Africa, see Prichard, p. 640 ^qq.

f Page G51. 1, Suahali; 2, Wanika ; 3, Wakamba; 4, Ukuafi; 5, Mscgua; G, Kosa; 7, Sichuana; 8, Mo- zambique; 9, 10, Kongo.

+ Page G65-6. 11, Madccass; 12, Malayan ; 13, Sandwich Islands; 11, Samoan and Fiji Islands; 15, New Hebrides.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

43

10, tatta, tatc. Cft\, 3N ; Yor., baba, oba; Dale, ate; Egypt., at, atai, atf or atu ; Chin., £00, father, elder, superior; cboo, lord, master.

35. Mother. — 1, 8, 9, 10, mama; 2, maio ; 5, mlcla; 6, mao ; 7, maacho ; 3, ia ; 4, ycya; Cfr. Yor., mo, to build or form of clay; aino (that which moulds or is moulded), potters clay, a child, ;* abiamo {child-bearer) mother; iya or yoyo, mother; Dak., mama, mother, a woman's breast ; Eg., rau (Cop., man) ; Chin., moo, mother, mould, form.

3G. Sun. — 1, dshua; 2, dzua; 3, kua ; 5, zua; 8, ezooah ; 9, ezoolo; 10, sultu; 11, massou androu; 4, engolo; 6, ilanga; 13, ra, la, laa; 14, la, ginga, asth ; 15, nangasnga ;

9, tenguaj 10, tunga. Cfr. Yor., odi6, day ; mo, rag, tat , yag, to shine; orug,s%, heaven; oruy, sun; oro or owuro, aurora, morning ; Egyp., la or ra, sun, day ; Sans., artra) (Cfr., a(TT7j/>),sky ; dyu, ra'dj, sur, to shine; diva«, day • div, shy; dyau«, the bright heaven, or aether ; (whence 2Wf, 8*6$, deus, dies, deva) ;f ravi*, sunu«, syu'nas su'ryas sun ; Chin., jib, yang, sun, day, light ; suy, name of one of the nine heavens, shining and. glossy, a burning-glass, the planet Jupiter ; tang, alight raised high ; tung, sunrise; king, lofty, bright and clear; lung, lofty, conspicuous ; Dak., 85, yag, or £ag, to shine or emit rays (the Dakota, like the Chi- nese, lias no r sound); agpe, day, space; iiagfag, ozaijzan, iyoyagpa, or iyofog&g, light; iyagpa, to push out.

37. Moon.— 1,2, 5,8,9, muesi; 3, moi ; 4,lubbo; 8, mohmgo ; 6, inyanga ; 9, tangua;

10, tunga ; 11, 12, boulan ; 13, 14, 15, marama ; 11, vola ; 14, vala, hual. Cfr., Yor., mo, to shine; os'ukpa, moon; (kpa, to break, to cut in two; wa, wari, to divide, to share); Egyp., man, to gleam, splendor, intellect (Yor., mo, to know) ; Dak., mae'a, the red of the morning, aurora; wega, broken; wi, sun, moon, month; Sans., vi, away, apart; Chin., yue, to separate, moon;% me or mei, to open, to spread out; wei, light. For the roots ra, la, lung, tang, yang, v. Sun.

38. Heaven or Sky. — ll,langhits; 12,languit; 13, lani, langui, rahi, rani, rangm; 14, king, langi; 15, rang, rohotang. v. Sun.

39. Earth or Land. — 11, 12, 15, tana; 12, henna; 13, wenoua, fonoua; 13, 14, perm, panua, vanua. Cfr., Yor., ta, to, to spread, to push forward; tara, gravel; Egyp., ta, the world ; Dak., tag, to touch ; Chin., ta, large, extensive; ta", to touch, to build up, earth heaped up ; tan, pan, fan, to extend, wide, thin, great, bank, to feci with the hand ; tang, large, to extend; to, too, earth; Sans., tan, to spread, to extend; tanu«, thin; ti'ra,, a shore; dhara', earth;

* The word amo is differently aeeented, to express the two meanings, but I think there can be little doubt of their common etymology. 1 have not thought it necessary to mark the distinction between the open and close Yoruba vowels.

t "Epionarmus (470, B, 0., in Megara), taught that Zeus was nothing but the air, and other gods but names of the powers of nature." Max Miiller, Lectures on the, Science of Language, p. 105. See also ibid. p. 21.

J Do the Yor. wari, Dak. wi, Chin., yv.1, me, wet, show that these nations, like the Aryans, named the moon " the measurer V M and w arc often interchanged in Chinese. See Bliiller, op. cit., p. 1G.

44

ON THE COMPARAT.VE ETYMOLOGY

Lat., pando, tango, tenclo, tenuis, terra ; Yor., wa, wo, ro, to dig, to excavate, to till ; we, to grind, to mash ; ro, to be soft; oro, clay ; eru, ashes; erukpe (Dak., wakpukpa), earthy dust; Chin., wa, bricks or tiles made of earth, a mud or clay house, a dirty puddle ; Sans., r, to go; the probahlc primitive of the Indo-Germanic root ar, in dp „r>v, ar-are, ear, e-a,rth, &c. [See Milller, p. 252, sqq.]

40. WATER. — 1, 5, madshi; 2, madzi; 3, maudzi ; (5, maasi ; 7, meetzi; 8, maschi ; i), maza, muza ; 11, rami, ranoa ; 1 2, aier, aei ; 13, 14, 15, wai, vai ; 15, nui, nuai. Cfr., Yor., oini, odo, water ; ro, d o, to d/rip or drop as water ; ro, to rain ; riij, we, to -wash, wet; re, to soak ; Chin., Ian, to overflow, inundation; me, nc, the appearance of wafer flowing ; wa, clear ivater ; wan, to cleanse ivith ivater, water whirling in an eddy; we, a slight shower ; wei, a great accumulation of water, water agitated ; shwuy, water ; yu, rain; Egyp.,mah, muau, nm, ivater; rm, to weep; rx, to wash, pure; ba-ba, lojlow ; bah, to inundate; Dak., mini, 'ivater; mdc (=mre, Lat., mare), a lake; Mi&, to wash; we, blood; wakpa, a stream of •ivater ; Sans., B(d( to moisten ; uda„ moist ; ya.',r, to go ; vari, water ; Gr., now/', pa&dto, fatvw, drj(>; Lat., unda, uvidus, madeo, ros, rigo; Ger., regen, rein; Eng., rain, rinse, water, wet.

41. Rain. — 11, oran ; 1 2, oudjan ; 13, 14, 1 5, oua, or ua ; 13, uas. v. WATEB.

42. Sea. — 11, ran, ransa, taik; 12, last, tassek ; 1 3, tai, ka'i, mouana tai; 14, gami, vaitni, sas ; 15, tai, tasi, ntiop. Cfr., Yor., ga, to be tall; agbami, okuij, the ocean (gba, to collect together ; koy, to be full) ; tere, a wave of the sea; ta, te, to spread out; to, large ; Egyp., ht, the sea ; Chin., lang, great, deep, a wave ; hae, the sea ; tae, broad and extensive, waters flowing to excess; kung, great, wide, to bind ; mwnn, full, excessive quantity of water; Sans., sagaras samuda«, the sea ; Gr., e&xtowS?. v. Water.

43. Mountain. — 11, oohits; 12, ooakit; 13, maounga pouke ; 15, ora ; 13, maounga, maouna, mona ; 14, maunga, mami. Cfr., Chin., mwan, man, moon, long, extensive, to cover, or be covered 'with earth ; mang, mtmg, great; wei, a mountainous appearance; Egyp., hu, a hill (Ger., hiigel) ; Yor., giga, height; gele, to be elevated; gori, to ascend; gere-gcrc, slope, or brow of a hill; wu, to swell, to increase; ori, head, top; Ice, to extend.; okc, mountain; Gr., opos, ffyat; Lat., mons ; Sans , mahi/dra«, girR

44. Light. — ll,herekherek; 12, tarangdjaia; 13, mama, malamalama; 14, sararama; 15, ao. Cfr., Yor., mana mana, lightning ; mara,u marai), in a bright, dazzling manner; Gr., $ltt? ; Lat , mane, matutinus, aurora, v. Sun.

45. Lightning. — ll,helet; 13, wira, wila, wiba. Cfr., Yor., wele, wavingly ; were,fo be quick- motioned ; wiri wiri, quickly, twilight; Gr., ijiwg ; Chin., wei, tortuous, light, .splendor; Sans, vega«, t vara', quickness; vidyut, lightning.

46. Dr. Prichard closes his comparative lists with the following remarks: "It will be perceived from the examination of this vocabulary, that many of the languages spoken by the black races contain numerous words which resemble the Polynesian. Whether these

OF THE YOKUBA LANGUAGE.

45

words have been adopted by the Papua tribes in their accidental intercourse with Polyne- sians, or belong to both races from primeval times, is a problem yet to be solved. The former opinion seems at first the more probable, but it is doubted much by those who have most carefully studied the languages of these nations."*

47. The belief in adoption might be plausibly defended, if the Avords were such as are rarely used, or if they were mere synonymes. But as they denote some of the most common objects, such as must be among the earliest named in any language, and as their analogues are found not only among the islanders of the Pacific, but also among the Chinese and Indo- European tribes of the continent, there can be but little, if any, ground for a reasonable doubt, that the similar words are parts of a very ancient inheritance from a common ancestor.

48. The field of etymological resemblance in Yoruba, is not confined either to the radi- cals or to the derivatives, but it presents even to the superficial observer, a great number of connected analogues, some of which are radical, while others are derivative. Some of the coincidences, especially with Latin and Greek words, are so striking, that I was inclined to believe the words might have been introduced by merchants and slave-traders, until their evident derivation from well-known Yoruba roots, satisfied me that they were indigenous. The following list will illustrate the character of these coincidences:

abetele, a begging beforehand; Ger.,bitteln. duro, to stay. Lat., duro.

abi, having. Lat., habeo.

agOij, Strife. Gr., ayah.

ake, an axe.

akc, a large she-goat. Gr., ais.

akorj, beads made of shells. (Jr., x»OT.

akuko, a cock. Sans., cucuta.

amona, a guide. Lat., moneo.

ataba, a dove. Ger., taube.

ati, and ; adi, after all. Gr., hi.

auro, morning. Lat., Aurora, eurus.

awari, search. Lug., aware.

bale, or basile, landlord. Gr., fiaadt-Os.

bata, a small box. Eg., baita. IIeb.,ro. beru, to fear. Lat., vereor; Sans., bhirui. hi, to beget, to breed. Gr., /?:»?. da, to give. Lat., dare.

emi, I, me. Gr., tpi.

eni, one. Gr., h. Ger., ein.

ckaij, once. Sans., eca«.

eni, a person. Gr., hiou

es'iij, a horse. Lat., asinus.

fere, almost. Lat., fere.

fit), to terminate. Lat., finis.

fiij, to be fine or nice. Fr., fin.

fu, to grow, as a plant. Gr., <p6w,

giga, height. Gr., yiyaz.

i, he. Lat., is.

ibe, there ; ibi, here. Lat., ibi.

ida.ro, dross of iron, cinders.

igoil, ailgk1. Gr., yunia.

ihiij, hither. Ger., bin ; Eng., hence.

irin, iron.

iwora, greediness. Lat., voro.

dile, to bo dilatory. Eng., delay.

* P. (3G6. For further Polynesian vocabularies, sec Humboldt's " Kawi-Sprache."

46

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

Lat., curtus.

kata-kata, to scatter.

ke, to cherish. Lat,, cams.

kiri, about. Lat., circum.

kolc, to make hills or beds of earth

colo, collis. kuru, to be short, ni, in. Sans., ni. niha, nikusa, near. ore, a watch-tower, oro, erect position, oro, wealth. Lat., aurum orurj, sky. Gr., ofy>aw$?.

Lat.

Sans., nicafa'. (if., 6pdu).

Lat., orior; Eg., ar.

re, red.

rudi, to bud. Lat., ruylimentum.

san, to be in health. Lat., sanus.

si, to be. Lat., esse.

s'aferi, to seek. Gr., o&<ppw».

s'ekc-s'eke, shack/ex.

s'okaij, to agree. Lat., socius.

tedo, to be patient. Lat., tedium.

tere, to be slender. Lat., teres.

toto, to be whole. Lat., totus.

tu, to spit. Gr., mOm.

wura, gold. Lat., aurum.

49. Evidence of the antiquity of many of these forms, and of their derivation from roots that are a common inheritance of the Aryan, Shemitic, and Turanian languages, may be found in the following

Comparative Vocabulary.

50. Abetele. — A, is a formative prefix, attached to verbs to denote the actor, the recipi- ent of an action, the action itself, or the abstract quality implied in the verb ; be, a verb, signifying to beg, to entreat, to be imprudent, to jump ; tele, adv., previously, probably de- rived from te, to spread out, to push, forward, and le, to exceed. If Skinner's derivation of beg from bag, which Wcdgcwood adopts, is correct, the analogy may be still further ex- tended in Yoruba, by the words ba, to bend, to plait, to meet, — bo, to cover, — bo, to insert, — abo, a bag, a bundle, — laba, a leathern bag. Cfr. Lat., pcto ; Sans., bhicf ; Hob., J£>pD.*

51. Am. — A formative, and bi. Among the many forms of the Yoruba substantive verb, we find mbe, which "denotes existence, absolutely," and gbe, to abide, which "takes the place of mbe in the imperative and subjunctive." Abi is defined as a prefix ; implying being in a state of, having, an existence, a being. Erom these definitions it would appear that bi had once the simple meaning of our English verb be, as well as its present causa- tive meanings, to affect, to generate.^ The Latin est vnihi, = habeo, the use of the verbs to be and to have, in the formation of preterites, in many languages, and the kindred forms

* In these comparisons, I pay no regard to the Yoruba, accents, which I am satisfied were invented merely to denote different modifications of the primitive radical meanings. The comparative words arc intended merely as suggestive, without implying that they are necessarily cognate.

f Wcdgcwood compares bo, with A. S. beon ; Ga., Leo, alive; Ir., bioth, life, the world; Or-, /3i'«c; and says, "The Irish verb substantive is formed from a root hi, the W. from a root ba, bu." ISowen's (Irani., p. 17, ways that Yor., bi, if, is "probably from the obsolete verb bi, to be, which is still retained in composition, c. g., abi, the state of existence."

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

47

of the future, to which reference was made in paragraph 25, page 41, render the radical affinity of abi and habeo very probable. Cfr. Eg., pe, pu, the, to be; Lat., capio ; Hob.,

52. Agog. — A formative, and gon. Kindred forms arc found in goo-go, to be sharp; go, to be long and slender ; goo-goo, to be large or prominent ; guo, to strike against, pound,, stab, 2>ierce. Cfr. Sans., han; Lat., con-tra; Gcr., gegen ; Gr., ymvla.

53. Aice. — A, that which, and ke, to cut. Cfr. Sans., agri, an edge; Gr., &xrj,d£()>i); Lat., ascia, acies; Shyennc, hoak, an axe; Dakota, ksa, to separate ; Blackfoot, koksakin, axe (Chin., kin, metal, an axe).

54. Aicii. — A, that -which, and ke, to cherish. Ke may be a modification of the older form ka, which signifies around, to fold. Cfr. Lat,, car us ; E., caress.

55. Akoij, or Akuij. — " That which hums." Formative a and kog, or kun, to hum, to murmur. The word is probably exotic, or it would be used for the shell itself, as well as for beads that are made of shell, but it suggests a very plausible etymology for *(;OT. The probability of a radical connection is strengthened by the fact that the Yoruba word for knee is ekuy, while the knee-pan (*<>rxy) is translated by diaggboro. Bo signifies to cover ; boro, very near, and dfagg seems akin to Sans. djanu« ; Gr., r«W; Lat., genu. In Chin., kang [Morrison, No. 5121] denotes a ringing noise ; kung [M., 6583], to lag hold of with the hand* to grasp round, to bundle up; ko [M., G451-68] to surround, a shell ; kang [De Guigncs, 12,781], "magna couchylia."

These resemblances arc suggestive of an onomatopoetic gradation of ideas, based on the murmur of the hollow shell, which may be represented by the English words call, conch, curved. A similar gradation is perhaps traceable in the Yoruba words ko, to call ; kara, loudly; bu-awoij, a conch-shell ; (wot), to weave ; wo, to be hollow, to eider into ; awoij, a tortoise) ; kakara, a muscle-shell; ka, to fold, to roll; kpe, to call ; kpc-kpc, a shell.

56. Akitico. — Ako, the male of beasts ; ko, to call, crow, shout. "The male crowcr."f

57. Amona. — Ami, a, spy, a sign; ona, a road,, — or a, one who, mo, knows, ona, the road. The word ami, one who sees, or that which is seen, points to an obsolete Yoruban root mi, to see, for which an equivalent is found in Lat. miror. The subordinate radical in miror, may be cognate with ra or ri in Eg., ra, the sun; iri, the eye; Yor., ri, to see; iri, sight;

vxi., opaei,

58. Ataka, or AdABA. — Ata, the ridge of a house,ha, to alight, to sit. " The roof-sitter." The primitive meaning of ata appears to be " that which is spread out," from ta, or te, to spread. Wcdgcwood associates dove with dive, and refers to the curious resemblances between columha and xohj^av. If the etymon of xoXo/iSdw were known, this single word

* Cfr. Sans, cangulas liand.

f In Dakota, the cock is aijpao-hotonna mdoka, "the male dawn-crower."

48

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOOJY

would perhaps furnish strong evidence in favor of radical verbal analysis. The ideas of height and depth arc so nearly allied, that both arc expressed, in soma languages, by the same word, and columba, or colum(en)-ba, "the column-sitter," might be naturally asso- ciated with xoXo/tpSf, " to go from a column," to leap, to dive.

59. Ati, or Aw. — A, thai which; di or do (jUm)% to bind j ti, to tie, to bind, and. Cfr. Lat., et, ad; Eg., at, to build; ati, a lintel; Eng , at. Ti also signifies to support, and igi, wood, Malic. Cfr. Er., tige*

GO. Auro, Obo, or Owuro. — A, formative, and vvn, to please ; awu, that 'which pleases, or o, it, that, and ro, to turn from a course or position, to bend or break at the edge, to gush out; ru, to rise, spring up, break out. "The pleasant break" of day. The ideas of red- ness and brilliancy are naturally associated with the dawn, and traces of this association may be found in Yor., roki-roki, bright///; roro, with a fine red color; re, red; oro, wealth, and war*, gold. Cfr. Eg., am, to glorify; auu, splendor; ra, sun; auru, a bean (Yor., nwmlze, red beans ; dzo, to eat) ; Sans., ra'dj, rutf, to shine; ra.dj, to dye, to color ; racta, rohita, red j aruna«> dawn; (jr., tpuffpdt, /'>/»%»; Lat., ruber, roseus, radius, aurum; Chin., tsaou, morn- ing.

61. Aware.— A, formative; wa, where? to seek, to share ; ri, to see, to find. Cfr. A. 8., warian ; It., guardare ; Sans., vr, to select.

62. Aye.— Space, opportunity, time, alive; Ayida, change, cycle of time; Lai, Lai- Lai, ever, forever, oldncss. A, formative, ye, to lire; yi, to revolve, to move. Cfr. Sans., ayuf, vaya\ age; avyaya, eternal. Gr., ,MV) ad, Lat., awum, eetas, eeternus; Goth., aivs; Chin., laon, old.

Wedgewood says, in discussing the two English meanings of aye, "The passage from the notion of continuance, endurance, to that of asseveration, may be exemplified by the use of the G.je,ja ; jG und je, for ever and ever; vonje her, from all time ; wer hat esje gesehen, who has over seen it? Das ist je wahr, that is certainly true ; es ist je nicht recht, it is certainly not right. In the same way the Italian gia; non gia, certainly not. From this use of the word to imply the unbroken and universal application of a proposition, it be- came adopted to stand by itself as an affirmative answer, equivalent to certainly, even so, just so. In like manner the Lat., etiam [et-jam] had the force of certainly, yes indeed,

yes In yes, we have the remains of an affix, se or si, which in A. S. was added to

the negative, giving nese, no, as well as jeee, yes."

A difference similar to that between German je nndja, is observable in Yor. ye, to live,

Marsh (under At, p. 54), speaking of the frequent synonymous use in Icelandic, of a, at, and i, as nearly equivalent to an in the OH 8axon of the Ileliand, and on in many of the Anglo-Saxon writers, suspects that a may be probably another form of at. In Yoruba we find all the vowels used as demonstrative roots, and (hey may very easily and naturally have been employed to denote relative position.

OF THE YOHUBA LANGUAGE.

49

and ya, to be, to he sprightly. From Yor., ya, to be; si, to he, and n, no, may readily be derived, ya-si =jese, it is is, and n-si = nese, it not is. (Cfr. Ital., si.) Ya, in Yor., also has the meanings, to hasten, to he easy of performance, to select an image to worship, which seems to ally it to the Dakota ya, to proceed, to make, to regard as, to resemble.

G3. Bale, from oba or baba, father, master, Icing, and ile, house. From ile, ground, earth, is formed, in a similar manner, Bale, a governor. The Yoruba preposition si, of, which has been dropped, appears to have been retained in the Gr. pa-<7i-Xe-(>q, " hc-who-is-master- of-the-land." The preposition is often omitted in Yoruba, the relation being implied, as in Chinese, by the collocation of the words. Thus oba ile = oba si ile, and ile oba, a kingdom = ile si oba, the land of the master. I cannot believe that this curious coinci- dence is merely accidental. The chances against it, assuming the chance of a sirjgle coinci- dent syllable to be as great as r^ are at least 100,000,000 to 1.

64. Bata. — Ba, to bend, to fit, to meet, &c; bo, to cover ; abo, a hag, bundle, covert; ta (Chin, to), to spread., to hick, &c. Bata has the several meanings of hide, leather, shoe, sandal, hoof, small box, a kind of drum. Cfr. Sans., petica', a box ; Gr., fiuco, xtjSoats, zi/3«m;?; Sp., bote, botila, a leather bra/for wine, a butt or cask; botclla, a bottle; It., botte, bottiglia; Fr., botte, boute, bouteille, bouton; Eng., boot, butt, bottle, button, bud.

G5. Marsh has the following note, under "Bottle," in Wedgewood's Dictionary, p. 115: " Gazi, quoting Hesychius, says that the Greek nutty, the name of a flask or jar covered with wicker-work or plaited thongs, was pronounced fiutty by the people of Tarentum in Magna Greecia, and that this latter form was gradually corrupted into foxim, foovhv, and {SmttiM, whence probably the Italian botte and its diminutive bottiglia. The glossary of Sophocles gives several other closely allied forms, and this must be regarded as a more probable etymology than that proposed by Wedgcwood, though it leaves the primary source of nvtty unex- plained." The affinity of these words can hardly be questioned, but there may be some doubt as to which is the earliest form. The old idea that Latin was derived from Greek, is now generally exploded, and as many Latin words bear internal evidence of greater antiquity than the corresponding Greek terms, it is not improbable that an old Umbrian bata, should become successively jSott, $aut(o», and putty, before it was transferred to Greece, and the £ be subsequently corrupted into a *. This hypothesis at least supplies Marsh's desideratum, by giving an explanation of the primary source of nrntty, — an explanation which may be made still more complete by adding to bata the Yoruba root na, to sketch, to extend, making ba-ta-na = m> n-wj. From the connection between Moo, ^.^ bo, ba, Mr. Wedgewood might perhaps derive some confirmation of his onomatopoetic views.

There is a curious connection between Yor. laba, a leather bag, satchel (la,* to split, ba, to bend, &c), and laba mole, robbers, kidnappers (mole, to conspire; whence laba mole, con-

voj,. xnr.— 7

* Chin, Ie8, M. 7073.

50

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

spirators to seize the leather bags of travellers). Can this laba mole, which appears to have denoted one of the earliest kinds of seizure, have any affinity to the root of Xarfdvto,

()(i. Bertj. — Ba, to come in contact vnth, to find; era, fear, awe, ierribUnem. Eru is compounded of c = a, formative, and ru, to be agitated.

67. Br. — Cfr. Sans, pi (Chin., fe, pe), to fecundate, to grow fat; vi', to conceive, to bear ; Dak., be, to hatch.

68. Dake, to he tiknt, to cease. Cfr., Eat., taceo, cessol Da is sometimes used alone in the sense of to cease. The effect of the ke appears to be merely intensive. Tt may be allied with ke (Eg., ki), to cut; ke-ke-kk, littleness; ke-ke, profound silence; ki, not. Cfr. Ger., klein.

69. De, Dr, Ti, to bind, tie, shaclde. v. § 59.

70. Dr, to require, to be deficient, from. Cfr. Gr., Sim; Lat., de.

71. Dile. — Di, to be deficient, from ; lc, to be strong, to lay upon; le, to lay one thing lightly on another, lazy (ile, the ground = "that which is laid level or flat;" be-le, fe-Ie, to he flat). Delay and dilatory are undoubtedly derived from the Eat. (libitum; and latus, in its several meanings of brought, broad, side, must have been derived from roots of kindred meaning with Yor. le, or lc, and te, which also signifies to lay, to spread out. The proba- bility of a common origin as well as kindred meaning, is increased by the fact that Yor. AFARA, slowness, dllatoriness, presents a, strong radical resemblance with Eat. fero. Eor afara = a, the state of; fa, dragging; ra, struggling. The second root of the Latin verb, as well as the first and third, may also be traced to the Yor. auxiliary ti, have, has, had. and ile; for in Yoruba, in order "to avoid an inconvenient hiatus, it is customary in speak- ing to drop either the final vowel of the verb, or the initial one of the noun which fol- lows it. . . . In a few cases neither vowel is dropped, hut the two arc exchanged for u."* Ti ile, " I have grounded, or laid," might, therefore, be euphonically contracted either into tile or tule.

The germinal significance of the three roots of fero, may therefore be, 1, fer, I drag with difficulty ; 2, tul, I have laid down my load, after bringing it ; 3, lat, laid down, after being brought. If there had been any historical consanguinity between the Romans and Yoru- bas, this etymology would doubtless be received without hesitation. Is it not equally credible, notwithstanding the want of historical evidence, in view of the immense proba- bilities against the fortuitous occurrence of such a connected series of coincidences 1"f And

* Bowen, pp. 6, 7. For another interesting instance, illustrative of both modes of contraction, sec the discus- sion of Fere, infra, §91.

f With the same moderate assumption as in § 63, the adverse chances would be at least (lOO)", or 1 ,000,000,000,- 000 to 1. The chances against the combined coincidences of fiaoi-ktbi, fer-, tul- lat-, would, therefore, be at least (100)10, or 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 to 1.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

51

if its credibility be admitted, is it not evident that the Yoruba must be older than any of the Indo-European languages'? Cfr. Chin., le, to arrange, to descend to, to fix, to exert ones strength, laws; te, earth, low, level; Sans., pratli, to he extended; Gr., xkaruf, Ifya; Lat., latus, lego, lex; Fr., plat; Eng., flat, lay, broad. The two principal meanings of /.fy,„, are repre- sented by Yor. le, to lay, and li, to say.

72. 1)e, to cover. Bit, to be Had;. Cfr. A. S.. deorc, dark; Scotch, dim. See Wedge- wood's discussion of Dun, for some remarks on the connection between the ideas of cover- ing and darkness.

73. DUEO, from da, to become, iro, standing. The a, and i are contracted into u, by the eu- phonic rule ([noted under § 71. Wedgewood quotes as analogous, typts, durus, and Turk. <1 umiak, to continue, stay, endure. The application of the two rules of assimilation, would produce both forms, typo and dure, from da iro. The Yor. duro does not appear to be used iii the sense of Lat. durus, but dilu, to congeal, may perhaps be its equivalent, for di signi- fies to be, become, be changed, and as 1 and r are mutually interchangeable, In = ru or ro. If tor the di in dilu, we substitute its equivalent die, to be, Ave obtain dfolu which is curi- ously coincident with Sans, djal, to be cold; Lat. gelu; Fr., geler ; Eng., chill, icily. Even without any commutation of letters we may obtain the French form, for elc, hardness (from e, that which, le, is hard), added to die, would make tele, to become hard = geler.

74. E, or ai (a, that which, i, not), " a prefix attached to verbs to form nouns of a ne<?a- tive meaning. . . . Hoots with this prefix are also used imperatively; as, aiwi, do not speak, keep silence /"* Other Yoruba negative forms, arc mah, n, o, o. Cfr. Gr., «, privative, ^, <>'); Eat., in-, ne, non ; Eng., no.

75. EMI, or Ml.— These forms are used indiscriminately for I, my, and me. The con- tracted form is rarely used in the nominative, except in repeating something that has been said, lint " as the objective pronouns are generally governed by a preceding word to which they are closely attached in pronunciation, the contracted forms are, for the most part, made by eliding the initial vowel of the pronoun, so that it may be more closely joined

to the governing word The full or primary forms are employed as possessive* only

when the relation of possession is expressed by the preposition ti, of,"f

There are three other forms of the nominative, — the euphonic mo, m5, and the future, or negative ij ; and two forms for each cast; of the plural, the full form, awa, for all the cases, and the contracted forms, a for the nominative, and \va for the possessive and objec- tive. The form y " appears to be a. modification of cmi. The manner in which it is formed is seen in the subjunctive phrase, ki emi ri, that I see, which is frequently contracted to ki em' ri, and ki 'm 'ri; and is still more frequently pronounced ki y ri."}

We are thus enabled to trace a, pretty satisfactory etymological connection between Chin.

Uowun, p. 13.

f Id., p. 21.

t M ., p. 19.

52

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

go or ngo, no, and wo ; Sans , aha,, ma', me, a'wa',, nau, vaya„ asmat,* na«, &c; Gr., tyd, Ip.-, />.- Vo,-, r/P.-; Lat, ego, m-, nos; Gcr. ich, mir, wir, uns; lag., I, my, me, we, us; Dak., mis', mi, ma, wa, we, un, or unk. It will be noticed that all these languages, except the Dakota, base their nominative singular on the form which is usually employed in Yoruba only for future or negative propositions. But g and m are both used in connection with verbs as particles of continuance, in which office Bowen regards them as probably a contraction of ni, to be. Ngo, go, ego, cmi, mi, ich, I, may, therefore, be the simplest affirmations of per- sonality, and universal humanity may thus be bearing constant, though unconscious testi- mony to the truth of Des Cartes' celebrated maxim, "Cogito, ergo sum."

The Greek alone retains, both in the singular and plural, the full form of the root em-, together with the contracted m- in the oblique cases of the singular. Sanscrit corresponds more closely with Yoruba in the dual and plural, having all tlve forms, awa, wa, and a, but it also retains in those numbers the nau and na«, which ally it so intimately to Greek and Latin. The elision of the initial vowel in the oblique cases of emi, which is general in Yoruba, becomes universal in Sanscrit, Latin, German, and English. The two latter languages agree witli Sanscrit, in retaining the Yoruba plural wa, as well as traces of the pluralized n-s. Dakota uses mi in all cases of the singular of the separate, and in the pos- sessive and objective singular of the incorporated pronouns; wa and we in the nominative singular incorporated ; ma, in the possessive and objective singular incorporated ; up, in all cases of the dual and plural.

76. Eni. — E ni, that which is.

77. Eke, an imprecation, a question; ara, an outh ; ero, a relation or telling ; ro, to tell, to relate; Cfr. Eg. r; Copt., ro, mouth; Gr., ipht,

78. Ere, gain, interest, earnings, a crop; cm, ashes ; ckuru, dust; crukpe, dust, earth ; ro, to till ; ru, to mingle; aro, that which is tilled. In these words we find the traces of that ancient root AR (a re, that which goes), from which the names of the Aryan race, and of the earth itself, are derived. Prof. Max Milller has given an interesting discussion of the root in its secondary meaning of to plough, together with some of its most important derivations, quoting Pott's remark that, " All might be traced back to the Sanscrit root ri, to «-o."t The corresponding Yoruba, word, re, not only retains this meaning, but it also has the signification to he good, which allies it still more closely to the Sanscrit A'rya. In ro, to fabricate from any raw material, we have tin; secondary meaning winch is retained in Lat. ars, and Gcr. arbeit. The association of tin; tilled ground with the idea of pounding, breaking, is so natural, that ror,, run, to chew, run, to break to pieces, and lo, to grind, may very probably be correlated. Their analogues are found in Chin, luh, dregs, loo, mixed, la, to break,

* The radical significance of the plural formative s, maybe traced in Yor. si, to, and; s'a, sn, to collect; s'c, greatly. " Motion from is invariably expressed by ti, and motion to by si."— Bowcn, p. 52. f Lecture on Languages, p. 252, sqq.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

53

to destroy, Ian, to break, le, lung, mo, mo-lc, mo-lung, to grind (mo, dust; Yor., mo, to ad- here, to build or form of clay ; Dak., maka, ground, earth); Sans., mrd, to grind ; mala,, dirt, sediment; rudj, to break. Gr., fidxos, fyy*-, ft6faj ; Lat., frang-, mola, mollis ; Goth., brikan, malan; Dak., mdu (= mru or mlu, as the Dakotas have no 1 or r sound), fine, pulverized, mdcca (= brec'a) broken; Crow, ara'tfic, agriculture; Pawnee, ara'nu, earth.

79. Burg, elephant. E rig, that which is heavy. Cfr. Gr., {& '!

80. Efufu, wind, breeze, air. Cfr. Chin., fung.

81. Egbera, equality; iro, an equal; ogba, equality, a balance, an equal ; gbc, to take up, to raise ; gbe . . . ha, ro, so, to hang up, to suspend. Cfr. Chin., kwa, to hang up, to suspend ; Lat., cegualia ; (libra, Sans, li, equality, lab, to hang); Gr., /5onrj, (v»?; Sans., sama, equal. If any evidence is needed to prove the affinity of gba and kwa, we find the idea of fluctua- tion (like a balance), represented in Yoruba by b, m, and w. E. g , bo, to shake hands ; gba, to float about ; agbami, the open sea (Cfr. aqua, marc) ; mi, to shake, to sivallow (Cfr. Chin., me ; Dak., mini, water) ; ma, to stroll about (in madc-koso, a strolling beggar who tells news for a living = ma deke o so, stroller lie-inventing icho talks ; Cfr. mendax, men- dico, mentior) ; wa, to tremble; wara, a shower, milk (Cfr. Goth., vato, water; Sans., va, logo, to blow; va'ri, water ; tfal, to tremble; djala,, water) ; wariri, to trembb ■greatly ; wele, wavingly ; we, to hoist (weben, weave, wave); we, to wash, to swim. That the word Mind, itself, as that which cfe-cerns, weighs, de-liber* -atcs, and is mteZ-Iigent, has a kindred origin, appears probable from Yor, mi, to breathe; mo, to know, to understand; mero, mete, to reflect, to consider, to meditate ; ma, truly ; mamodza, to guess (= to endeavor to know truly. Cfr. Lat., memoro = ma, truly, mo, to know, ro, to stir, excite, intend; Eg., ma, truth; Gr., i>Av, idv, iivjv); woij, to measure, to weigh; Sans., ma, to measure ; manas, mind. For cor- responding vowel changes Cfr. Sans., ma's, Gr. trfvfy A. S. mona, Ger. mond ; moon.

82. En ii), the back, hinder part. Cfr., Chin., heang, the back part of the head or neck, that which rests on the pillow, the strings which tie a cap behind ; Ger., bin, hinter. Wedgewood institutes a comparison between behind and the Finnish hanta, the tail. This is evidently a compound word, the first syllable compounding to the bin in hinter, and the second may probably be; the old root ta, tan, tag, to extend, to stretch out, which is found in nearly all languages. Cfr. Yor., sig, before, te, to push forward, to spread out. Dak., sigte, tail. The dental s would be a natural sound for the expression of what is before, and h, which is formed far back in the head, for what is behind, and in composition with ni or n, to be, these consonants would make sig and hhj.

83. Kkai). — Ka, ko, to gather, to collect; oka, eko, that which collects ; kag, oka-g, ako, ako, one. See Og, § 131.

* Liberty, is tbo form of balancing or vi-im-ting between two courses of action.

54

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

84. El, Al. — Prefixes, denoting the actor, owner. E or a, he who; i, he, she, it; li, has, is. Cfr. Arab., al ; Lat., 'die. The three demonstrative roots, e, a, and i, are all re- tained in the declension of Lat. is.

85. Eni, a -person, one, any. Cfr. A. S., an-ig. Eng., an-y. v. Eni, § 76, Qg, § 131,

86. Eeaij, beast, goat, sheep. From e, that which,, and rag, to wound. Cfr. ro, to strike ; Eng., ram; Lat., arics1?

87. Ese, afoot, track, course, row, order. Cfr. Lai, secundum, secundus, series, sequor. Gba (= qua, v. discussion of § 81), which has the meanings to collect together, to assist, and ri, to he, with esc, give ese qua, and esc ri, which coincide closely with the Latin ana- logues. Sill, and sole, may he allied with the same root, with the termination le, to lay upon, or le, down, on the ground.

88. Es'itj. — From e, that which, s'in, to run precipitately. Cfr. asa, a runner ; asaloh, one ■who runs away ; aso, a leaper ; Sans, a§va«, a horse, gal, gval, to run; Lat, asinus, salio ; Goth., asilus; A. S., asal; Ger., esel.

89. Eto, Oto, truth. Cfr. Gr., topes = e to ma si, that which true really is.

90. Eyi, e, he, heyi, yes. See Aye, § 62.

91. Fere. — Fe and fi appear to have a common origin; fe, to blow; (fe no, to fan, to blow off; be, to cool by fanning) ; fi, to swing, vibrate, incline to one side; hence (by the association of ideas that renders "inclination" a synonyme for "desire") fe, to love, wish, desire; fiti, to lean against; fi diiyti, or fehigti, to lean on, to trust in (Cfr. Lat., fides, in both its meanings of trust, and a string ; Eng., fiddle). From fe, to love, are formed the noun ife, love, which in its turn becomes the root of lufe = li ife, to have love, and olufe, a lover, or one beloved, = o li ife, he has love. By different juxtapositions of these roots, we may readily account for the formation of Chin, fe, to do a kindness to; Sans., pri', to love; lubh, to desire; Gr., 9dim, -/«»?, Umm; Lat,, libet, lubet ; Goth., friond, hubs ; A. S., lcof, lufian, friond; Ger., lichen, freuen, frcund. From fi, to he, flexible, are derived fi, to place, put, apply to a purpose, to make (Lat ,flo) ; h . . ro, to twist; fi le, to make pliable ; fi lo, to make twisted ; fig-rig, a thread. Cfr. Lat., filum, fiecto; Fr., filer.

92. F19. — Probably from fi, to make ; whence fi ni or fi 0 = to be made, to terminate, to be perfected, to be fine. Cfr. Lat, finis ; Ger., fein. The English fine = thin, slender, deli- cate, retains the still older idea of feebleness or flexibility.

93. Eo, to.////, to float; fo-fo, foam. Cfr., forth, fowl, A. S., fngl, Ger., vogcl = fo gele, to fly high (gele, to be elevated, raised above the surface, from ga, high, ele, an eminence); Chin., fei; Eg., fai, pai, pa; Sans., pat, to fly; foam, Ger., faum ; Lat, fumo (fo, to float, ma, to wander). With this root is probably allied the preposition f\X,for, to, of by, with, on account of. Cfr. Ger., fur ; Eng., for.

94. GlGA. — Ga, to be high, tall; ga ru, to rise high (Sans., guru, Ger., gross, great).

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

55

95. T, he; i si, he is, or it is he. Cfr. Lai., is. I is the contracted or citativc form of 05, or otj. Cfr. Dak., is', iye, which is used both in the singular and plural.

96. Idaro. — " That which becomes collectcd-into-a-mass."

97. Idi, an eagle; igun, a vulture; gunu-gmm, a buzzard. Cfr. Gr., dtrdf, y6^.

98. Igoij ; i, that which, gun, stabs.

99. Tim). — Cfr. ha, to be narrow, hiha, narrowness ; Goth., hidre, hither. Sec Shirj, § 82. The idea of backwardness (Shiij) may be associated with that of nearness or narrowness (il"u), by thinking of something which has gone away, and is corning back.

100. Ik A, cruelty, wickedness; ka, kaka, kako, presumptuously, to be strong, stiff; bag, to oppose ; Cfr. Gr., xaxd*. Webster compares wicked witli Sw. vika, to decline, to err, to fold ; Sax., wican, to recede, wicelian, to vacillate, to stumble ; and says it seems to be connected in origin with wag, and Sax. wicca, witch, Cfr. Yor., awirirj, avvika (in al-awika), a wizard, a witch; ka, around, to fold ; we, to twist, to fold ; Sans., pratiha'ricas a juggler.

101. Tkavi, cane with which chairs arc bottomed; i, that which, kang, to pierce, to bore, to nail. Cfr. Chin., kang, straight, erect, to prick as a thorn; kan, rod, reed, cane, to pierce; Gr,, xdwa, xsvriwt

102. Lu, dew, mist, sight, that which is seen. Cfr. Eg., iri, eye ; Gr., 6pdeo, fy>!?.

103. laiij. — "That which is heavy." v. Erig, § 79.

104. Itele, the leg of a beast. To, to spread out, to push forward ', to trample; tSlS, to pur- sue, to trample on. Cfr. Lat., talus ; Er., Eng., talon.

105. Iwora, wobia, greediness ; w5ra = wo ara, to enter into one. Cfr. Gr., fiopd.

1 06. Ka, ko, to gather, to fold, to roll, around ; kSkg, a wheel ; kSkSra, a cart (ru, to carry) ; kiri, to wander, to droll ; makari, compasses, dividers. Cfr. Eg., kar, an orbit; kara, sarcophagus; karas, coffin, embalmment, mummy; kab, to fold; Sans., cacfa«, a girdle; ca'ra', a prison, binding; tfaeras a wheel ; Heb., "112, to bind; 33"0, a circle; Gr., xipxos, xuxAoc, xOXtvSpos, xuMta-, Eat., career, circum, curvus, currus.

107. Kata-KATA, fSka, fogka, tuka, to .scatter. Ka, around, on; ta, to spread, spill, pour ; &&, to blow; fon, to sow;, tu, to untie, loosen, pour out. Cfr. Gr., oxs6dwvp.t, xaxd; Lat., scatco; A. S., scateran; Eng., scatter.

108. Ke. — Probably from the primitive ka, to surround, enfold, embrace. Cfr. caress, cherish.

109. KELE, gently: kSkS, profound silence. Cfr. Eng., raZm.

110. Kr, toAert? Cfr. Sans., ci.?

111. KiijKiij, a very Utile portion. Perhaps derived from ki, not, or ke, to cut. Cfr. Eng., -kin.

112. Kiri. See Ka, § 106.

113. KoLE. — From ko, to gather, to collect, or k5, to build, to dig earth into heaps, and ile,

56

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

ground, earth. In a similar manner we may derive Ger. hiigel, and A. S. hill, from Ger. hoch, Du. hoog (E. huge), A. S. hih, and ilg.

114. Kon, to sing. Cfr. Chin., Sans., can, to sound : Lat., cano. Sec Akorj.

115. Kuru. — Ku, to die, to terminate, to be blunt or dull : ra, to perish, to dissipate: ru, to be lean. Cfr. Chin., ko, inclined to sleep: Gr., x&pa.

116. Le, to be strong, healthy, to lay upon: mbc, wa (= ba?), to be: bi, to be, to beget: Cfr. Goth., A. S., liban; Ger., leben; Chin., leg, to arrange in order: leih, strength : we, to be: Gr., Uyuj.

117. Le, to be sluggish, lazy. Cfr. Chin., Ian, lan-to (M. 6905) ; Lat., lentus; Ger. lass.

118. Lo, lukewarm. Cfr. Chin., 15, loc, to bum; A. S., vlaco; Ger., lau.

119. L5, lu, to strike, to play a stringed instrument, to beat a drum. Cfr. Ger., lautc; Eng., lute.

120. M, "the sign of continuance or permanence;" ma, an auxiliary particle, conveying the idea of continued action. Cfr. Lat., manco. The verb mbg, to be, denotes existence abso- lutely or permanently, like the existence of God. The derivative connection that lias already been pointed out between ni, m, and 9, to be (v. Emi, § 75), shows an analogy with the idiom of the Dakota language, in which "verbs signifying to be arc repeated to denote continuance." — Riggs, p. 53.

121. Mah, not. Cfr. Eg., am. See E, § 74.

122. Makari, compasses. See Ka, § 106.

123. Mmvii, two (= m<5, again, edzi, two); agbedcmedzi, the middle, midst (= a that which, gbe, makes, dc mii, to bind to, e, that which, dzi, is distant or separated). Cfr. Sans., madhya, ; Gr., /leaidios, vera ; Lat., medius, dimiilium ; Goth., midja; A. S., middcl. Webster's con- jecture of an alliance between middle, meet, nerd, &c, appears to be justified and explained by this analysis. The natural lapse of the di into Aii, is exemplified in the Yoruba pre- position di, from, = dzi, to be distant, and da, d«i, to break. The Sans, dvi, dvau«, two (Chin., tuy, a pair, M. 11,443), may be compounded of di, from, and wo, to go.

124. Ms, to be light (as day), to shine, to be clear, to know, to understand. Cfr. morning. See Egbera, § 81.

125. Ni. — Cfr. Gr., poet, hi; Dak., en.

126. NiHA, NiKUSA; ni, in: ha, to be narrow, croioded: ka, ko, to gather, to collect: se, to shut a door, to close up, s'a, to collect. Cfr. A. S., neb, neah; Ger., nalie, nach; Eng., nigh; W., nig, narrow.

127. Ore. — Cfr. ri, to see: Eg., iri, eye.

128. Oro. — Cfr. ro, to stand erect, to excite: Gr., Spot, Spat.

129. O, 0, I? Mah, not. Cfr. Chin., wc, wei, woo, me, mci, mo, Gr., irf, 06. The xin obx, may be equivalent to Yor. ko, Dak. ka, not.

OF THE YORU15A LANGUAGE.

57

130. O, 9 j Iw8, /Ao'w: egyig, pyig, yow. By the aid of the particle of extension or dis- tance, ti, from, of, by, who, which, that, we may form ti iwS = tuwo; Cfr. Sans., tva„ tva', tava ; Lat., tu ; Gr., 06 (Dor., t6), the a being substituted for r, as in Sans, tad, now, sa«. The wo appears in Lat. vos; the o, modified into u, in Gr. <V-^<?; the yi in Eng. ye, and Dak. incorporated ya, ye; yi -t- iwo =yuwo in Sans, yuva', and the modified g in A. S. ge. As ni = m = 5 (v. Emi, § 75), the g in yyiij, the p. in 6/j.s'cc, and Dak. ni, may all have sprung from the same origin.

131. O, 9 j 09) Og, he, she, it; aw5g, nw5g, wot), they. Cfr. Fr., on. In awa, we, our, us, iwo, thou, thy, thee, aw5g, they, their, them, there is apparently an identical compound root, which has been modified so as to distinguish its several applications. That compound is probably a or i, that which,wix, is. With the demonstrative ta prefixed, it becomes tawa, which is equivalent to Sans, tava, thy, "that which is" there, and to the Dakota possessive tawa,, in mitawa, my: nitawa, thy: tawa, his: unkitawapi, our (Ger., unser); nitawapi, your: tawapi, their. Perhaps the analogy between og and Fr. on, may be considered more important, if we observe that 09 also signifies and,* as if the two things connected were an-d, or one-d (Cfr. Ger., und; Dan., og; Du., en; Dak., ugkag). The use of the same root for the substantive verb and for unity, may be observed in Dak. way, a or an, wagda, one, ug, yagka, wagka, yukag, to be: Yor., ni (= g), one, to be: Eg., an, to be, and (Cfr. Ger., audi) ; u, to collect: ua, one: 1111, to be (Cfr. D. ug; J. at., unus); Gr., si-?, tl-ixt, eh-at (Cfr. Ger., ein). The da or ka in wagda wagka, may be identical in origin with the similar sound in Yor. ka, Eg., s-ka, to collect: Sans., eca«, one: tfa, and, also: tfi, to collect: Eng., each; Gr., xai; Dak., ka, tfa, and, tfi, with: Chin., y or yih, one, to unite in one, also: Span. y.

Wedgewood has happily developed Tooke's idea of the radical connection of and with an if whether: Webster adopts the hypothesis of Skinner, that and is equivalent to add, with an epenthetic n.f Tooke quotes also the conjectures of Casaubon and Lye, the former tracing the word to tlra, and the last to fr«. I am not aware that any one has suspected an affinity to the indefinite article an, or that any attempt has ewer been made to reconcile these apparently conflicting hypotheses. 1 think this reconciliation can be satisfactorily effected, through the three Yoruba words, abi, ani, ati, each of which is employed to denote that which has anything. Abi and ani also signify that which is, and are therefore exact synonymes with awa, the three words being derived in the same manner from hi, ni, and wa, to be. Awa, ama, and aba, are so nearly alike, that we might reason- ably suppose them all to have sprung from the same root. This supposition is confirmed

* l?owon says, "09, and, appears to bo tlio pronoun on, he," (p.17), but ho docs not attempt to show the con- nection between the two meanings. Bunsen compares Eg. au, with Ger. aueh and Dan. og-. -|- Diversions of Purley, London ed. 1840, pp. 70, 117. vol. xin. — 8

58

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

by the fact that, as we have already seen, m is used in Yoruba, as well as b and w, to represent continued existence. Yor. aba, with or together; Gr., S/m; Eg., am, with, and

Sans., eva, also (ewa = awa in Yor., Cfr. Eng., even), are, therefore, apparently identical

words.

Bowcn says (p. 29), "the origin of the particle 'ti' is doubtful. It is not improbably, however, a modification of to, to be sufficient, to attain to, which is sometimes employed as a sort of auxiliary particle." The same radical meaning is traceable in ta, to shoot forth branches, to go from place to place, and te, to spread out, to push forward, to approach., to be near. Hence, ti, 1, to thump, strike against, lean against, prop, support ; 2, to lock or fasten, tie, hind ; 3, that, who, which; 4, from, of, by, and; 5, auxiliary or possessive part., hare, has, had (as if to denote that which is tied to one, or by one). De and di have many of the same meanings, and are undoubtedly from the same root. It appears, therefore, that the only radical difference between abi, ani, awa, and ati, is found in the more definite idea of nearness to some object, that is expressed by ati. They all signify "that which is," but ati also means that which is at or to one. Sec Ati, § 59. Cfr. Chin., te, to ar- rive at, push -with the horns, rush against, oppose, bind with leather straps, to, for, to grasp toith the hands.

In the various significations of dc, di, ta, te, ti, to lay, spread out, erect (as a tent or altar), bind, possess, it is easy to discover the origin of Sans, dha, Gr., H, to place, as well as of the kindred English forms do, did, and the preterite ending -d* Curiously enough, we find the preterite inflection retained in Yoruba grammar, in its primitive radical form; c. g., emi fe, Hove; emi ti fg, I possess love = I love-d, or I have lovc-d. In the optative mood we find, besides the interesting form ma = Chin, mang, Ger. mag, &c, to which allusion has already been made, the still more interesting ma ti = Chin, mang te, Ger. mog-tc, Eng. migh-t; e. g., emi ma ti ri, / might have seen.

The correspondence in meaning between Yor. ni and ti, is further borne out by the root na, which, like ta, te, ti, signifies to stretch, extend, that. Ana would, therefore, = "even,- in the sense of continuous, unbroken, level," which Wcdgcwood conjectures to have been the primitive meaning of an, if One of the Yoruba forms of the verb to be, thus ap- pears to have become the basis of Gr. &, Eat., Eng. an, while another is retained unaltered in Yor. bi, if Cfr. Tooke's derivation of if from gifan,t = Ger. ge-ben.

132. 0Br>, wealth, clay. " That which is scraped together ; collected into a mass." Cfr. It., oro; Fr., or.

133. 9ns, a word,, conversation. "That which tells, or sounds." Cfr. Lat., verbum, oro (Cfr. Yor., toro, to beg); Dan., Sw., ord; A. S., Eng., word.

134. <buitj = »ru ni? that which is elevated or swollen, or o raij, shining. This word

* See Mailer's Lectures, pp. 231-4.

f p. 70.

OF THE TORU1JA LANGUAGE.

59

suggests a number of interesting philological ramifications. The association of the ideas of elevation, light, and heat, with the sky, is so natural, that we may reasonably expect to find, through the words that express those ideas, traces of very early family affinity. That expectation is realized in 1, S. hi, to grow, to enlarge; heti«, flame ; 2, 1). T.,* °he, a moun- tain,; "hewapke, "lying on the mountain," front (Cfr. S. hima, L. hicms, Gr. xsii'-<"v) ', 'hcmlo, "hemlaya, hill-top, ridge, mountain-level (Cfr. S. hima'laya, L. pla-nus = I). T. mla); G. hitze, hiigel, himmel (which, like the Greek Olympus, may possibly have been taken from the fancied abode of the gods in a mountain range) ; 4, E. heat, hill, high, heaven (== heaved, or high) ; 5, A. S. bar, H. "in, hoary ; in, « mountain ; 6, C. he, dangerous moun- tain*, the eolorof the, sun, tight, very hot, M. 3311, 3338-9; heuen, heaven, to rule, M. 3663, 3820. llim-a'laya, = "the cold abode," is not so closely connected with the Dakota form hemlaya, as it appears at first glance. But the remote connection is still more inte- resting, inasmuch as it shows that a primitive etymological vinculum may exist where we least expect to find it. Cfr. Y. ra, to lay one thing on another ; bele, bere, flat, level; ile, a house, ground, earth; D. T. mla, smooth, flat; ehle, to lay; mle, a lake; L. pla-nus, la- cus; Gr. Htyv, E. lake, lay, level, flat.

Another primitive root, la or ra [with its modifications wa and ma], either simple, na- salised, or gutturalized, is found in 1, C, laou, large, M. 6925 ; king, lofty, bright and clear, M. 6912 (Cfr. G. lange; L. longus; A. S., l)u., Dn., lang); ling, a mountain, M. 7269; lung, conspicuous, glorious, rising high, in the centre as the summit of a mountain, M. 7399 (Cfr. 8-\oix-Ttos) ; lok, the bright dazzling glare of water, M. 7302 (Cfr. L. luc-) ; 2, Eg. ra, sun, day; rkh, heat (Cfr. S. rcfa, star); 3, Y. la (in ni-la), large; van, to shine; orun, sun, shy; re, to go (Cfr. S. r, L. ire); ru, to rise, smell; 4. S. urn, great; ra/vi*, the sun; ra'dj, to shine (Cfr. I,, rad-, verus) ; 5. S. Afric. and Polynes. la, lang, &c. Sec ante, § 36, 38.

The Chinese having no r sound, usually represent it by 1, but sometimes by w, which they often interchange with m. We therefore find 1, C. mang, M. 7509, 7515 = wang, M. 11621 = lang M. 6912, vast, wide, great. The ideas of power, government, law, flow naturally from that of greatness, and we have 2, C. wang, the sun going forth and shedding abroad his illuminating beams, M. 11620; wang, a ruler, M. 11618; mang, strong, a senior or superior, M. 751.5-6 (Cfr. L. magnus, major, magister) ; lang, the majesty of divinity, M. 6920; laou, venerable, M. 6923; le, human reason, to govern, M. 6942 (Cfr. E. re-go, ratio) ; lik, strength, to establish, to erect, to form or fix, to put in order, to restrain, M. 7111-3, 7217 (Cfr. kfyw; E. lego, lex, crigo; S. ra'dj- to rule; E. reign, regular, rectitude ; D. T* ilaka, to govern. Cfr. also Malay, languit, orang; Eg. ra, ruma; S. bhanus, manufas; D. wi, wic'a (= sun, man) ; L. vir, vireo, vividus ; Y. ko, to flash, kun, to bum, ako, male, akoigri, man); ling, M. 7249, to govern, lav). Speech, as the directing faculty, is repre-

* Titoijwaij dialect of the Dakota language.

60

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

sented by 3, C. ling, to order, to enjoin, upon, M. 724-9 ; low, loquacity, M. 7341 (Cfr. D. T. la, to ask, demand; S. loc ; L. loquor, lingua; Gr. kiyu>; G. laute ; E. loud).

The occasional use of y for w, r, and their cognates, is perhaps indicated by 1, C. yang, va,st, abundant, M. 11869; yang, a rule, a 'pattern, M. 11873; yang, the light of fire, dear, bright, M. 11891, 11899; yen, to .speak (Cfr. D. ia, to speak), M. 12009; yen, the eye, (Cfr. S. nayana, H. py), M. 12078; 2, C. mih, the eye, M. 7682; muh, the eye, M. 7803 (Cfr. Eg. r, a mouth, iri, the eye; Y. ri, to .see; li, wi, to say; ro, to tell; Gr. ipim, 6pdw).

135. Ota, an enemy, adversary. "He who shoots or attacks." Cfr. Lat., bostis (Yor. 5 = Gr. S<;). Odi, malice. Cfr. Lat., odium.

136. ltAij, to twist, to spin, to send, to communicate (as fire or infusion), to shine; rag ikpo, "to twist double," to speak ironically. Cfr. Gr., '>-/<«/«?, hpm, tlpwvtla; Sans., ra'dj, to shine; Eng., rank, ranged

137. It?, Redness is expressed in Yor., both byre and ro (in roro, with a fine red color). The root ru is found in Dak. duta = ruta, red, scarlet. Cfr. Sans., rohitas, ruddy: Gr. ipuO/xk, pd&iv; Lat., roseus, ruber; A. S., reod.

138. Ro, to turn from a course or position, to yield or give place. Cfr. Sans., vrt, to turn ; Lat., rota, rotundus; It., rondo; Eng., round.

139. Rudi. — From ri, to be, to have; idi, " that which binds or is bound," a sheaf, bunch, source, cause, reason. Cfr. Lat., rudis, rudimentum, crudio.

140. Si, S'e, to be. Cfr. Lat., esse; Gr., ka--, Ger., seyn; Eng., is.

141. SiBg, there; si ibe, to that place. Cfr. Lat., sibi.

.142. Soy, Suq, to broil, to burn; gusu, the south. Cfr. Arm., su ; A. S., suth ; Cer., Dan., Er., sud; Lat., sudor.

143. Su-A, ia good,, nice, well. Cfr. Sans., su, fine, pleasing \

144. S'AFCRi. — Bowen derives this word from s'e, to be, a, one who, fori, seeks. He re- fers fcri to ori, the head,, but does not explain how it obtains its meaning. S'a signifies to pick out, select. In Dakota, we find ksa, to separate, pa (= Eg. pa), the head, ksapa = "the separating or discerning head," a wise man. Cfr. Gr., ao<p6$ ; Lat., sapio.

145. S'Okos'Gko; s'e, to be, make; kg, to set a snare; ka, to fold around; ka . . lara, to en- tangle, as a net. Cfr. D., schakel, a link or mesh; A. S., sccacal.

146. S'os'o, singly, only. Cfr. S'a, Chin, shah, to collect; Lat., solus.

147. S'os'o, to bewitch; s'e, to be, os'o, a witch. Cfr. Chin., shah, witchcraft; shfih soo, a kind of magic arts or calculations, which are illegal.

148. S'OKArj; s'e, to be; okay, one, the same.

149. Tore; te, to spread out, to push forward ; rg, to increase. Cfr. ku, to extend; gele, to be elevated; Gr., fipmot; Lat., grus; Ger., kranich (Cfr. genick, neck); Dan., krane, trane; Sw., trana; Dak., pehagg'kUu} (g'idag = g'irarj) ; Eng., crane, heron.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

61

150. Toto, ToTo, TuTU; to, to reach, to be sufficient, to lay up; tu, to pour out, to gush.

151. Tu. — Cfr. Chin., too; Sans., ftiv, to spit.

152. Wo, to be hollow, to enter into, to abide in a house. Cfr. Ger., wohncn.

153. W5WS, to be lukewarm. Cfr. Goth., Ger., D., Eng., warm.

154. Wura; wu, to please; ra, to buy? v. Ortt, § 132.

155. Ye, to be pleased; yg, to turn out of place, change ; yi, to turn, revolve. Cfr. Chin., yiti, to be pleased, change, to revolve; ya, to laugh.

156. Ye, to rejoice. Cfr. Chin., yu, joy ; Lat., jucundus ; Eng., joy.

157. Yu,), to conceive, to be pregnant ; ye, to lay eggs, to live; Cfr. Chin., jTli, to enter, to receive, to put within ; jin, pregnant; Sans., dji'v, to live; djan, to produce; yuvan, young; Lat., juvcnis ; Eng., young, yean.

158. On account of considerations which I may have accidentally overlooked, I am willing to make a much greater allowance than is justified by our mathematical investiga- tion, for the probability that many of the foregoing resemblances will finally prove to be destitute of any etymological value, that many others will have only an indirect and re- mote significance, and that perhaps very few will prove to be fraught with any general and permanent interest. But even if a single one shall be found to indicate a resemblance which cannot be satisfactorily explained as accidental or onomatopoetic, between two languages that arc so widely separated as the Yoruba and Dakota, or "the Yoruba and Chinese, my labor will neither have been in vain, nor will its usefulness be confined to the gratification of an idle and futile curiosity, or to the author's personal satisfaction from a pleasant occu- pation for many studious hours. The wide field of interesting, successful, and profitable research, that was opened by Home Tooke, encourages me to hope that an unlimited ex- tension of even his primitive and imperfect methods of analysis into regions where only such primitive methods are as yet available, would sow the seed for a future bountiful philological harvest; a harvest that would help, in combination with the discovery of Mon- gol skulls in the Tinniere, and the manifold evidences of repeated waves of Asiatico-Euro- pcan migration, to bring us back to the full realization and enjoyment of that feeling of universal brotherhood, which accompanied the catholic faith of our fathers,* that God "hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth."

* Is not the foundation of that faith greatly strengthened by even a single instance of such resemblance as is to bo found in the Indian " Manitou" = Eg. ma nter = G. mang taou, M. 9945 = L. magn-us deu-s = Gr. ixiy-a^ 0e6-s — S. mah-a dev-a '!

62

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

INDEX.

a, Eg. 17; Y. 50 to 62, 84, 131;

Gr. 74; Ic. 59. ab, L. 25. 3K, 34. aba, Y. 131. abetele, Y. 48, 50. abi, Y. 48, 51, 131. abiamo, Y. 35. abo, Y. 50, 64. acios, L. 53. ad, L. 59. adaba, Y. 48, 58. adi, Y. 48, 59. '«£[', 62. aequalis, L. 81.

'arjp, 40.

aetas, aeternus, aevum, L. 62.

'aer<k, 97.

afara, Y. 71.

agbami, Y. 81, 42.

agbedemedji, Y. 123.

'aycbv, 48 ; agon, Y. 48, 52.

aha,, S. 75,' 17.

ai, Y. 74.

«re, 48.

'atcuv, 62.

aivs, Go. 62.

'wcj, 53; ake, Y. 48, 53, 54.

ako, Y. 32, 56, 81.

akon, Y. 48, 55.

akuko, Y. 48, 56.

akui), Y. 48, 55.

al, A., Y. 84.

am, Eg. 121, 131.

ama, Y. 131.

"afta, 131.

ami, Y. 57.

anio, Y. 35.

amona, Y. 48, 57.

»av, 131.

an, E. 131; A. S. 59.

ana, Y. 131.

anak, anog, anok, Co. 17.

and, K. 131.

anek, Eg. 17.

ani, Y. 131.

anig, A.S.. 85.

anuk, Kg. 17.

any, E. 85.

aij, anpe, 1). 36.

aqua, L. 81.

ar, I. G. 39, 78; Eg. 48.

ant, V. 77.

ar&nu, P. 78.

arare, L. 39.

ar&tfic, Cr. 78.

&pd%yr), 136.

arbeit, G. 78.

aries, L. NC>.

aro, Y. 78.

Apouv, 39.

ars, L. 78.

aruna*, S. 60.

a'lya, 8. 78.

asa, asaloh, aso, Y. 88.

asal, A. S. 88.

asoia, L. 53.

asilus, Go. 88.

asinus, L. 48, 88.

asmat, S. 75.

aitryjp, 36.

acjri, S. 53.

agvas, S. 88.

aftra(J S. 36.

at, Eg. 34, 59 ; E. 59, 131 ; Ic. 59.

ata, Y. 48, 58.

ataba, Y. 48, 58.

atai, Eg. 34.

ate, D. 34.

atf, Eg. 34,

ati, Y. 48, 59, 131; Eg. 59.

atn, Eg. 34.

ato, Y. 32.

au, Eg. 25, 131; P. 25.

auch, G. 131.

aui, auu, aura, Eg. 60.

auro, Y. 48, 00.

aurora, L. 44, 48, 00.

aurum, L. 48, 60, 154.

av, I., P. 25.

avyaya, S. 62.

a'wa',, S. 75.

awa, Y. 17, 131.

aware, E. 48, 61.

awari, Y. 48, 61.

awika, Y. 100.

awirin, Y. 100.

awoij, Y. 55, 131.

awu, Y. 59.

awudiie, Y. (id.

axe, E. 48, 53.

d^ivrj, 53.

aye, E., Y. 62.'

ayida, Y. 62.

ayuf, S. 62.

ba, Y. 50,04, 58, 66; W. 51.

baba, Y. 34; Eg. 40.

bag, E. 50. .

bah, E. 40.

baita, Eg. 48.

BO 3, 50.

bale, Y. 48, 63.

fiaadsus, 48, 63.

bata, Y. 9, 64.

na, 9, 48.

be, Y. 50,91; E. 51; 1). 67.

beef, E, p. 27.

beg, E. 50.

belc, Y. 134.

beo, Go. 51.

boon, A. S. 51.

bere, Y. 134.

beru, Y. 48, 66.

OF THE YOHUBA LANGUAGE.

63

bhiof, S. 50. bhirus, 8. 48, 66. bi, Y. 51, 67, 116, 131. /Sfoc, 48, 51. bioth, Ir. 51. bitteln, G. 48, 50. bo, Y. 50, 55, 64, 81. bocuf, P. p. 27. boot, E. 64.

fiojia, 105.

boro, Y. 55.

bota, botolla, botila, Sp. 64.

botte, I., F. 64.

bottiglia, I. 64.

bottle, E. 64.

/Sou?, 65, p. 27.

boutc, P. 64.

boutoillo, P. 64.

bouton, P. 64.

bov-, L. p. 27.

ftoorlov, ftmjTTcav, 65.

broad, B. 71.

bu, W. 51.

bud, E. 64.

(jutIov, 65.

butt, button, E. 64.

[UK,), 64.

cacfat, 8. 106.

call, E. 55.

calm, E. 100.

can, C, S. 114.

oano, L. 114.

oapio, L. 51.

oard, S. 106.

career, L. 106.

caress, E. 48, 54, 108.

carus, L. 54, 48, 1 08.

ccsso, L. 68.

oherish, E. 108. chill, E. 73. ohoo, O. 34. ci„ S. 110. circum, L. 48, 106. oolumba, L. 58. collis, L. 28. colo, L. 48. coneh, E. 55. contra, L. 52. crane, E. 149. cucuta, S. 48. ourrus, L. 106.

curtus, L. 48.

curvus, L. 106.

curved, E. 55.

— d, E. 131.

da, Y. 48, 73, 123.

dake, Y. 68.

dare, L. 48.

dark, E. 72.

de, Y. 59, 69 to 72, 131 ; L. 70.

delay, E. 48, 71.

do mo, Y. 123.

Sim, 59, 70.

dcorc, A. S. 72.

ih/p6(, 73.

deus, L. 36, 158.

deva, S. 30, 158.

dhara, 8. 39.

dha, S. 131.

dhu, .So. 72.

di, Y. 73, 123, 131, 59, 09, 70.

dies, L. 36.

dile, Y. 71.

dilatory, E. 71.

dilu, Y. 73.

dimidium, L. 123.

div, divas, S. 36.

dive, E. 58.

dja, Y. 123.

djal, 8. 73.

djala, S. 81.

djan, S. 157.

djanus, S. 55.

djarjgboro, Y. 55.

dje, Y. 73.

dji, Y 123.

dji'v, S. 157.

djo, Y. 40.

do, E. 181.

dove, E. 58, 48.

dross, E. 48, 96.

du, Y. 72.

dun, E. 72.

durtnak, T. 73.

duro, L., Y. 48, 73.

durus, L. 73.

duta, D. 137.

dvaus, dvi, S. 123.

dyaua, dyu, S. 36.

e, Y. 66, 74, 76, 84, 88, 90 ; Co.

25. car, earn, earth, E. 39.

ecas, S. 48.

edii, Y. 128.

efufu, Y. 80.

egbera, Y. 8 1 .

ego, L 17, 75.

ehde, ehle, D.184.

chin, Y. 82.

cin, G. 131, 48.

a/xu, tlptovsla.) 136.

s7f, 131.

ilra, 181.

ek, Eg. 17.

eka, I. 88.

ck.ii), Y. 48, 83.

ckuij, Y. 55.

ekuru, Y. 78.

el, Y. 84.

elc, Y. 73.

^Atoy, 44, 45.

)?//.-, 75.

ifii, 17, 48, 75.

emi, Y. 17, 48, 75.

b, 48.

en, Du., 181; D. 125.

eni, Y. 48, 76, 85.

W, 125.

"evcoi, 48. cut-, Eg. 1.7. ente-, Eg. 28. epyiu, Y. 130. eran, Y. 86. ere, Y. 77,78. 'spicu, 77, 134. erigo, L. 134. eriy, Y. 79. ero, Y. 77. era, Y. 39, 66, 78. erudio, L. 139. erukpo, Y. 39, 78. 'epuOpoi;, 60, 137.

es, Eg. 17. V?-, 140. ese, Y. 87. csel, G. 88. esse, L. 140. cl'in, Y. 48, 88. et, L. 59 ; Eg. 17. — et, Eg. 28. etad, S. 17. "m, 48, 131. etiam, L. 62.

64

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

cto, Y. 89.

"trvftof, 89.

ourus, L. 48.

cva, 8. 181.

even, B. 181.

eyi, Y. 90.

f, Eg. 17.

fa, Y. 71.

fei, C, Eg., 93.

fan, 0. 89; E. 91.

Faum, G. 93.

h, 0. 67,91; Y. 91, 107.

fear, E. 48,91.

fehiijti, V. 91.

fein, 6. 92.

feka, Y. 107.

fere, Y., L. 48, 91.

Wo, L. 71.

li, V. 91.

fiddle, E. 91.

fides, L. 91.

file, Y. 91.

filer, F. 91.

cpiX(u), 91.

filo, Y. 91.

lilum, L. 91.

fin, F. 48, 92.

fine, B. 92.

finis, L. 48, 92.

fin. Y., 48, 92.

tin -rin, Y. 91.

tio, L. 91.

firo, Y. 91.

titi, Y. 91.

flat, E. 71, 134.

flecto, L. 91.

fo, fofo, Y. 98.

foam, E. 93.

foemina, L 33. fog, foyka, Y. 107. foo, C. 33, 34. for, forth, fowl, E. 93. freuen, freund, Q. 91. friond, Go. A. S. 91. fu, Y. 93, 48. fugl, A. 8., 98. fang, 0. 80. <pba>, 48. far, G. 93. ga, Y. 42, 94. ■1,,,, V. 81,42,94.

gbe, Y. 81, 123, 51.

ge- G. 28.

ge, A. S. 130.

gegen, G. 52.

gele, Y. 43.

geler, F, 73.

gelu, L. 73.

genu, L. 55.

yipavos, 149.

gere-gere, Y. 43.

gia, I. 62.

giga, Y. 43, 48, 94.

ylyas, 43, 48, 94.

giri°, S. 43.

go, C. 17,75; Y. 52.

yovo, 58.

ymvla, 48.

gon, gon-gon, Y. 52.

gori, Y. 43.

gross, G. E. 94.

gras, L. 149.

guardare, I. 61.

gni), Y. 98, 52.

y(xp, 97.

guru, S. 94.

gnsu, Y. 142.

ha, Y. 99, 126.

habeo, L. 51.

hae, C. 42.

han, S. 52.

hante, Fi. 82.

bar, A. S. 134.

in, in, II. 134.

he, G. 134.

'he, I). 131.

he, heyi, Y. 90.

beang, C. 82.

heat, E. 134.

heaven, E. 134.

'hemlaya, 'hemlo, D. 134.

hence, E. 48. heron, B. 149. heti«, S. 13 I, houen, C. 134. "hewankc, I). 134. hi, S. 134. hidre, G. 99. hiems, L. 134. high, E. 184. hiha, Y. 99. hill, E. 113, 134.

hima, hima'laya, S. 134.

himmel, G. 134.

hin, G. 48, 82.

hither, E. 99.

hit/.e, G. 134. .

hoak, 8h. 53.

hoar, E. 134.

hostis, L. 135.

lit, Kg. 42.

hu', hv, II. 17; Eg. 43.

huge, E. 43, 113, 134.

biigel, G. 43, 113, 134.

i, Y, 48, 74, 84,95, sqq., 129; II.

17; K. 75; le. 54. ia, D. 13 1. ibe, Y. 48. il.i, Y., G. 48. ioh, G. 75. idaka, v. ilaka. idara, S. 17. idaro, Y. 48, 90. idi, Y. 97. ife, Y. ill. igi, Y. 59. igoij, Y. 48, 98. igug, Y.97. ihitj, Y. 48, 99. ika, Y. 100. ikai), Y. 101. ilaka, D. 131, ile, Y. 63, 71, 134. ille, L. 84. impingo, L. p. 32. in, L. 74. ire, L. 134.

iri, Y., Eg. 57, 127, 102, 134 inn, Y. 48, 103. ¥pis, 102. iro, Y. 73, 81. iron, E. 48, 103. is, L. 48, 95, 84 ; E. 140. (V«?, 81. if, 1). 95. itele, Y. 104. iwo, Y. 130, 131. iwora, Y. 48, 105. iya, Y. 34. iye, D. 95. ja, jc, G. 02. jelly, hi. 73. jese, A. 8. 02.

OF THE TORUBA LANGUAGE.

65

jih, C. 86, 157.

jin, C. 157.

joy, E. 156.

jueundus, L. 156.

juvenis, L. 157.

ka, D. 131 ; Y. 83, 54, 106, 126,

131,145; Eg. 32; 1). 129. kab, Eg. 100.

xai, 131.

kaka, kako, Y. 100. kakara, Y. 55.

xaxoq, 100.

ka...lara, Y. 145. kan, C. 101. kang, G. 101, 55. kag, Y. 83, 100, 101.

X&wa, 101.

V, 51.

kar, kara, karas, Eg. 106.

kara, Y. 65.

-|-i3, 33"0, 106. kata, Y. 48, 107.

rani, 107.

kc, Y. 108, 145, 48, 60, 43, 54. kcko, kekeru, Y. 106. keke, kele, Y. 100.

X£Vr(ll>, 101.

%£ip.div, 134.

ki, Y. 110, 68.

ki„ S. 17.

xiftoats, xtjStoTdt, 64.

kin, 0. 53.

-kin, E. 111.

kin-kin, Y. 111.

kiri, Y. 48, 112, 106.

xlpxof, 106.

klein, G. 68.

knee, E. 55.

ko, Y. 56, 113, 55, 106, 126, 83,

100, 129.; 0. 115. ko, 0. 55.

xi'yXVy 55. koksakin, Bl. 53. kole, Y. 48, 118.

xoXupfiav, 58. xSjpa, 115.

kon, Y. 42, 114, 55. kpa, Y. 37. krane, Dn. 149. kranich, G. 149. ksapa, D. 144. vor,. xrn. — 9

ku, Y. 115.

xvxkos, xbhvfipos, xul(cu} 106.

kung, 0. 32, 42, 45.

kuij, Y. 45.

kuru, Y. 48.

kwa, C. 81.

la, Eg. 86; Y. 05.

la, I)., Y., S. Afr., Polyn., 134.

la, C. 78.

lab, 8. 81.

laba, Y. 50, 65.

kaS— , 65.

laeus, L., 134.

lake, E. 134.

lai, Y. 62.

Xa/tfidvoi, 65.

Ian, C. 42,40, 117, 78.

lang, C. 86, 42, 134; A. 8., Dn., Do., 8. Afrio., Polyn., 134.

lange, G. 134.

laou, 0. 62, 134.

large, E. 134.

lass, G. 117.

latus, L. 71.

lau, a. 118.

laute, G. 119, 134.

law, E. 134.

lay, lazy, E. 71, 116, 117, 134.

le, Y. 71, 117,50,71,116; C. 71, 78, 134.

leather, E. 05.

leben, G. 116.

leg, leih, C. 116.

ktym, lego, L. 71, 116, 134.

lentus, L. 117.

leof, A. S. 91.

level, E. 71, 134.

lex, L. 71, 134.

li, Y. 71, 84, 134; S. 81.

liban, Go., A.S. 116.

libet, L. 91.

libra, L. 81.

licbcn, G. 91.

lik, ling, G. 134.

lingua, L. 134.

Unzu), 91.

liubs,'Go. 91.

lo, Y. 78, 118, 119.

15, G. 118.

loo, C. 118, 134; S. 134.

longua, L.^134.

loo, C. 78.

loquor, L. 134.

loud, E. 134.

low, G. 134.

lu, Y. 119.

lubet, L. 91.

lubh, S. 91.

luc-, L. 134.

lufe, Y. 91.

lufian, A.S. 91.

lub, G. 78.

lung, C. 36, 78, 134.

lute, E. 119.

m, Y. 120.

in—, L. 75. — m, L. 17. ma, Y., L. 26, 120 ; Y., S., Eg. 81 ;

C. 43, 134. macf, S. p. 81. fiadda), 40. iriadeo, L. 40. madbya(, S. 123. madekoso, Y. 81. maegn, A. S. p. 31. mag, G. 26. fidyyavoVf p. 31.

magister, magnus, L. 134, p. 31. fidyos, p. 81. mah,Eg. 40, p. 31; Y. 74, 121,129;

S. 158, p. 31. ma(h, mahat, S. p. 31. mabidras, S. 43. mai, Eg. 26. majestas, L. p. 31. mak, Eg. p. 31. maka, 1). 78.

/tdxap, p. 31.

makari, Y. 106.

fiaxpdc, fiaXa, p. 31.

mala., S. 78.

mama, D. 35.

mamodja, Y. 81.

[idv, 81.

man, G. 43.

mana-mana, Y. 44.

manaa, S. 81.

mane, L., Y. 44.

nianeo, L. 120.

mang, C. 43, 26, 134; p. 31.

mango, L. p. 31.

maraij-maran, Y. 44.

66

ON THE COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY

mare, L. 81.

ma's, S. 81.

matin, F. 44.

matutinus, L. 44.

matfa, D. 37.

mau, Eg. 37 ; Co. 84.

may, E. 26.

mbo, Y. 51, 116.

mde, D. 40, 134.

mdetfa, D. 78.

mdoka, D. 32.

mdu, D. 78.

me, C. 37, 40, 81,129; E. 75,17.

ixj, 74, 129.

mcdius, L. 123.

medji, Y. 123.

meet, E. 123.

pfya<;, 158, p. 31.

mci, G. 37, 40.

mckyl, So. p. 31.

mcmoro, L. 81.

p.tv, irfv, 81.

mcndax, mendioo, montior, L. 81.

/J-ijvyj, 81.

mero, Y. 81.

fteailtos, iisrii, 123.

mete, Y. 81.

mi, Y. 81, 17, 57, 75; I). 75.

micel, A. S. p. 31.

mieh, G. 17.

mickels, Go. p. 31.

mid, E. 123.

middel, AS. 123.

midja, Go. 123.

might, E. 131.

fj.(yvu[ic, p. 81.

mih, C. 134.

mind, E. 81.

ming, C. p. 31.

mingle, E. p. 31-2.

mini, D. 40, 81.

mir, G. 75.

miror, L. 57.

misc-, L. p. 31.

mil', I). 75.

mix-, /«£-, Gr., L., E. p. 31.

ml — , D. v. md —

mo, Y. 81, 124, 17,75. 35,36,37,

57, 78; C. 78; I). 75. mo, C. 78, 129, p. 27. mogte, G. 131.

mole, Y. 65.

mona, A.S. 81.

mond, G. 81.

moneo, L. 48.

mongrel, E. p. 31-2.

mons, L. 43.

moo, C. 65, pp. 27, 34.

moon, E. 81 ; C. 43.

morning, E. 124.

mr — , D. v. md — .

mrd, S. 78.

niu, Eg. 34.

muai, Eg. 40.

mucel, A. S. p. 31.

much, E. p. 31.

mucho, Sp. p. 31.

muokle, Sc. p. 31.

muh, O. 134.

mung, C. 43.

mwan, C. 42, 43.

my, E. 75.

myche, So. p. 31.

mycken, Sw. p. 31.

n, Y. 62, 74.

na, Y. 65.

nahe, nach, G. 126.

naa, nau, S. 75.

n.'iy.'ina', S. 134.

■JV, H. 134.

ne, L. 74.

neah, neh, A.S. 126.

near, E. 126.

nese, A.S. 62.

ngo, C. 17.

ni, Y., S. 48, 125; Y. 75, 76.

nicafa, S. 48, 126.

nig, W. 126.

nigh, E. 126.

niha, nikusa, Y. 48, 126.

no, E. 74 ; C. 75.

vai — , 75.

non, L. 74.

nos, L. 17, 75.

nwoij, Y. 131.

n, Y. 17, 75, 130.

rjyirj, Y. 130.

o, Y. 25, 60, 74, 129 to 131; II,

17. — o, L. 17. 6, 6$, 17. oba, Y. 34, 63.

odi, Y. 135. odium, L. 135. odo, Y. 40. odjo, Y. 36. Og, Dr.. 131. ogba, Y. 81. okarj, Y. 81,148. okc, Y. 43.

mxeavt'ii;, 42. okuij, Y. 42.

olufe, Y. 91.

oXuintoq, 134.

omi, Y. 40.

on, F. 131 ; A. S. 59.

ona, Y. 57.

on, Y. 181.

or, F. 132.

6pdm, 48, 57, 102, 134.

ord, Da., Sw. 133.

ore, Y. 48, 127.

ori, Y. 43.

orior, L. 48.

oro, Y. 36, 48, 39,60, 128, 132,

133; I. 132; L. 133. 8pos, 43. ISpos, 128. Spin, 128.

orurj, Y. 36, 48, 134. os'o, Y. 147. of'ukpa, Y. 37. ota, Y. 135. oto, Y. 89. do, 74, 129. obpavdi, 48, 134. owuro, Y. 36, 60. pa, pai, Eg. 93. pae-, L., C. p. 32. pack, G., E., Sw., p. 32.

■nay-, Ttax-, p. 32. pan, O. 39.

pando, L. 39.

pang-, L., (3. p. 32. pag, paf, S. p. 32. pax, L. p. 32. pe, Eg. 51 ; 0. 67.

TT1J/V-, p. 32.

pohangidaij, J). 149. peticii, S. 64. peto, L. 50. pi, S. 67. planus, L. 134.

OF THE YORUBA LANGUAGE.

07

plat, F. 71. Tz\aTi>tz, 71. npaoij 91. prath, S. 71. pratiha'ricaa, S. 100. pri, S. 91. mbw, 48, 151. pu, Eg. 51.

TXUTlVf], 65.

r, S. 39 to 42, 134; Eg. 77, 134. ra, Eg. 30, 57, 00, 134; Y. 134,

71. racta, S. 60. radius, L. 60, 134. rad;, 8. 36, 60, 136. ra(dj, S. 60, 134, 136. rain, E. 40 to 42. fiiuva), 40 to 42. ram, E. 86. range, rank, E. 136. rag, Y. 36, 86, 134, 136. ratio, L. 134. ravi», S 36, 134. rofa, S. 134. re, Y. 40 to 42, 48, 134, 137, 60,

78. reot-, E. 134. red, E. 137, 60, 48. regen, rein, G. 40 to 42. rego, L. 134. reign, reg-, E. 134. rood, A.8. 137.

ri, Y. 57, 61, 127, 131; S. 78. rigo, L. 40 to 42. ftiv, 70.

rinse, E. 40 to 42. ri,,, Y. 40 to 42. rkh, Eg. 134. rin, Eg. 40 to 42. ro, Y. 39, 40 to 42, 60, 73, 77, 78,

SI, 86, 128, 134, 137, 138; C.

77. /56do», 137, 60. rohita«, S. 137. 60. roki, Y. 00. rondo, I. 138. ro,,, V. 78.

pUTZTJ, SI .

roro, Y. 60. ros, L. 40 to 42. roseus, 1.. 137, 60.

rota, rotundus, L. 138.

round, E. 138.

ru, Y. 60, 66, 78, 73, 134.

ruber, L. 137, 60.

rudi, Y. 48, 139.

rudimcntuin, L. 139.

rug, Y. 78.

ruta, D. 187.

rutf, S. 60.

r%, Eg. 40 to 42.

a, Eg. 33.

sa, S. 17.

sagara», S. 42.

sak, Kg. 33.

salio, L. 88.

satna, S. 81 .

samuda8, S 42.

sanus, L. 48.

sap, Y. 48.

sapi, Kg- 33.

sapio, Ij. M 1.

scatco, L. 107.

soateran, A.S. 107.

scatter, E. 107, 48.

soeaoal, A.S. 145.

sohaffen, G. 33.

sohakel, Du. 145.

se, Eg. 17; Y. 126.

secundus, secundum, L. 87, p. 26.

sen, Eg. 17.

soquor, series, L. 87.

seyn, G. 140.

shape, E. 33.

shtib, G. 116, 147.

sliwuy, C. 40.

si, Y. 48, 62, 63, 140.

sibe, Y. 141.

sibi, L. 141.

sill, E. 86.

sip, Y. 82.

sinte, I). 82.

s— ka, Kg- 131.

ffxsddwv/M, 107.

sn, Eg. 17.

sua, Eg. 33.

so, Y. 81.

soc us, L. 48, 148.

sole, E. 86.

solus, L. 146.

son, Y. 142.

(TOifO^j 144.

adtipftuiv, 144.

south, E. 142.

su, Arm. 142 ; S. 143.

su-a, Y. 143.

sud, G., Da., P., 142.

sudor, L., 142.

suivre, F. p. 26.

su'nua, S. 36.

suy, Y. 142.

sur, S. 36.

su'rya°, S. 36.

suth, A.S. 142.

suy, C.